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LI'RARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 
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V, 


THE 


SCIENCE  OF  THE  BIBLE 


BY 


REV.  MARTIN  S.  BRENNAN.A.M. 

Pastor  of  St.  Lawrence  O'Toole's  Church,  St.   Louis,  Mo.,  Professor  of 

Astronomy  and  Geology  in  Kenrish  Seminary,  Member  of  St.  Louis 

Academy  of  Sciences,  A.S.P.,  B.A.A.,  Author  of  Electricity 

and  its  Discoveries,  What    Catholics   have  done    for 

Science  and  Astronomy,  New  and  Old. 


St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1898. 

Published  by  B.  HERDER, 

17  South  Broadway. 


LOAf^  STACK 


Nihil  Obstat. 

F.  G.  HOLWERK, 

Censor  Librorum. 


Imprimatur, 

H.  MUEHLSIEPEN,  V.  G., 
Adjn, 

St.  Louis,  Rio.,  Sept.  24,  1897. 


Copyright,  1898,  by  Jos.  Glmmersbach. 


— BECKTOLD— 

PRINTING  AND  BOOK  MFG.  CO. 
ST.  I  GUIS,  MO. 


■ObiSO 

£7 


J 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

9 


31 


I.  Moses 

II.  The  Pentateuch 

III.  Inspiration 50 

IV.  Some  Difficulties  Solved 63 

V.  The  Higher  Criticism 74 

VI.   The  Creation 89 

VII.   Moses  and   Laplace. 102 

VI 1 1,   Providence  in  the  World 124 

IX.   Astronomy  of  the  Bible .    157 

X.  Optics  of  the  Bible 181 

XI.   Results  of  Geology  (Agencies  of  Structure) 194 

XII.   Results  of  Geology  (Present  Structure) 215 

XIII.  Results  of  Geology  (Fossils) 226 

XIV.  Results  of  Geology  (Testimony  of  the  Fossils) 238 

XV.   Results  of  Biology  (Principles) 252 

XVI.   Results  of  Biology  (Spontaneous  Generation  ?) 265 

XVII.   Results  of  Biology  (Transmutation  of  Species  ?)....    277 

XVIII.  Results  of  Anthropology  (The  Human  Species) ...  ,    299 

XIX.   Results  of  Anthropology  (Man  not  of  Simian  Descent.  315 

XX.   Results  of  Anthropology  (Origin  of  Races)    328 

XXI.  Antiquity  of  Man 346 

XXII.  Antiquity  of  Man  (con.) 357 

XXIII.  The  Deluge 371 


58  7 


PREFACE. 


>HESE  pages  aim  to  give  an  honest  presen- 
tation of  the  branches  of  science  touched 
upon  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  compared 
with  the  same  branches  studied  from  a 
purely  natural  or  secular  standpoint.  Astronomy, 
Optics,  Geolog}^,  Biology,  and  Anthropology,  in 
many  portions  of  the  Bible  stand  out  in  clear  promi- 
nence, therefore  these  branches  will  form  the  subject 
matter  of  my  comparative  stud}^  The  fair  minded 
reader  will,  I  think,  be  convinced  that  no  well  estab- 
lished fact  or  principle  of  science  is  contradictory  to 
an}^  passage  of  the  Bible  properly  and  honestly  in- 
terpreted. 

There  is  no  bending  of  science  to  suit  the  script- 
ural text.  The  teachings  of  science  drawai  from  the 
latest  and  most  correct  sources  are  put  down  inde- 
pendently of  any  ulterior  motive.  The  passages  of 
Scripture  said  to  contradict  science  are  then  taken 
up,  and  the  apparent  conflict  is  harmonized. 

Science  has  undoubtedly  made  transcendent  prog- 
ress wdthin  recent  years.  This  progress  is  due  in 
great  measure  to  the  continual  changes  occasioned 
by  the  rapid  frequency  of  new  discoveries.  Indeed 
there  is  no  feature  of  science  as  extraordinary  as  its 
changeableness. 

The  science  of  twent\'  years  ago  is  to-day  almost 
obsolete.      Every  new^  discovery  puts  in  hazard  or 

greatl}^    modifies   some    old   favorite   theory.      The 

(5) 


—  6  — 

science  text-books  of  our  j^outhful  da3^s  wovild  be 
much  more  harmful  than  helpful  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupils  of  to-da}^ 

Under  such  circumstances  is  it  not  strange  indeed 
to  see  the  arrogance  with  which  many  so-called  sci- 
entists condemn  everj^thing  that  stands  in  the  way 
of  their  ephemeral  theories?  The  holiest  convic- 
tions and  most  sacred  and  best  established  traditions 
of  the  race  must  vanish  at  the  touch  of  these  sciolists. 

However,  it  can  be  truthfully  stated  that  it  is 
only  the  braggadocios  and  tyros  of  science  that  are 
so  presumptuous.  Or  to  be  more  precise,  this  arro- 
gance is  but  the  expression  of  agnosticism  parading 
in  the  garb  of  science. 

The  great  men  who  have  done  most  for  science 
are  not  of  this  temper.  The  Copernicuses,  Newton s, 
Amperes,  Farada5\s,  Oersteds  and  Henrys  were  mod- 
est men. 

The  great  physicist,  Clerk-Maxwell,  declared  to- 
wards the  close  of  his  life  that  all  the  agnostic  h}^- 
potheses  he  had  ever  known  need  a  God  to  make 
them  workable. 

Sir  William  Thompson,  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy in  Glasgow  University,  and  who  has  prob- 
ably done  more  for  the  advancement  of  physical 
science  than  any  other  living  man,  had  this  to  say 
recently  :  "  One  word  characterizes  the  most  stren- 
uous of  the  efforts  for  the  advancement  of  science 
that  I  have  made  perseveringly  through  fifty-five 
years;  that  word  \s  faihire ;  I  know  no  more  of  elec- 
tric and  magnetic  force,  or  of  the  relation  between 
ether,  electricity  and  ponderable  matter,  or  of  chem- 


ical  affiiiit}^  than  I  knew  and  tried  to  teach  my  stu- 
dents of  natural  philosophy  fifty  years  ago  in  my 
first  session  as  professor." 

A  considerable  amount  of  space  comparatively  is 
devoted  in  these  pages  to  Geology,  although  it  would 
appear  that  only  a  few  passages  of  scripture  really 
bear  upon  this  science.  Still  Geology  in  one  of  its 
branches,  Paleontology,  or  the  science  of  fossils, 
enters  largely  into  Biology,  Anthropology,  the  treat- 
ment of  the  questions  of  the  Antiquity  of  Man  and 
the  Deluge.  What  we  know  of  prehistoric  Biology 
and  Anthropology  we  learn  entirely  from  the  study 
of  fossils. 

Hence  a  great  deal  of  Geology  is  given  which  may 
at  first  sight  seem  unnecessary,  or  even  foreign  to  the 
subject  matter  under  consideration.  But  to  avoid 
continual  reference  to  Geology  when  treating  of  the 
other  sciences  I  thought  it  best  to  give  all  its  results 
under  one  caption. 

Because  I  have  treated  the  sciences  separately  in 
order  to  avoid  calling  them  up  promiscuously  when 
needed,  this  treatise  may  appear  somewhat  shapeless 
and  of  faulty  construction.  Still  I  thought  it  prefer- 
able to  use  this  method  rather  than  that  of  mingling 
up  the  sciences  interminably  together. 

I  have  recognized  the  world  as  older  than  Usher 
makes  it,  and  favored  the  theory  of  a  partial  deluge, 
because  these  views  are  legitimate  interpretations  of 
Genesis  and  held  by  many  of  the  greatest  commenta- 
tors and  are  more  in  accord  with  the  present  teach- 
ings of  science. 

The  Author. 


THE 


SCIENCE  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


Chapter  I. 

MOSES. 

This  first  chapter  is  devoted  to  a  short  biographical  sketch 
of  Moses,  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch.  By  establishing  at 
the  outset  the  character  of  the  great  prophet  for  honesty,  sin- 
cerit)^  and  candor,  it  will  obviate  the  necessity  of  continual 
reference  to  him  when  we  come  to  the  Study  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. 

Exodus. — The  first  and  second  chapters 
of  the  book  of  Exodus  contain  the  follow- 
ing narration:  "These  are  the  names  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  that  went  into  Egypt 
with  Jacob ;  they  went  in  every  man  with 
his  household,  Ruben,  Simon,  Levi,  Juda, 
Issachar,  Zabalon  and  Benjamin,  Dan,  and 
Nephthali,  Gad  and  Aser. 

And  all  the  souls  that  came  out  of  Jacobus 
thigh,  were  seventy :  but  Joseph  was  in 
Egypt. 

After  he  was  dead,  and  all  his  brethren, 
and  all  that  generation,  the  children  of 
Israel  increased,  and  sprang  up  into  multi- 
tudes, and  growing  exceedingly  strong  they 
filled  the  land. 

(9) 


—  lo- 
in the  meantime  tliere  arose  a  new  king 
over  Egypt,  that  knew  not  Joseph  :  and  he 
said  to  his  people  :  Behold  the  people  of 
the  children  of  Israel  are  numerous  and 
stronger  than  we. 

Come  let  us  wisety  oppress  them,  lest 
they  multiply  :  and  if  any  war  shall  rise 
against  us,  join  with  our  enemies,  and 
having  overcome  us,  depart  out  of  the  land. 

Therefore  he  set  over  them  masters  of 
the  works,  to  afflict  them  with  burdens : 
and  they  built  for  Pharaoh  cities  of  taber- 
nacles, Phithom  and  Ramesses. 

But  the  more  they  oppressed  them,  the 
more  they  were  multiplied,  and  increased : 

And  the  Egyptians  hated  the  children  of 
Israel,  and  afflicted  them  and  mocked  them  : 

And  they  made  their  life  bitter  with  hard 
works  in  clay,  and  brick,  and  with  all  man- 
ner of  service,  wherewith  they  were  over- 
charged in  the  works  of  the  earth. 

And  the  king  of  Egypt  spoke  to  the 
midwives  of  the  Hebrews :  of  whom  one 
was  called  Sephora,  the  other  Phua,  com- 
manding them :  When  you  shall  do  the 
ofiice  of  midwives  to  the  Hebrew  women, 
and  the  time  of  delivery  is  come :  If  it  be  a 
man  child,  kill  it ;  if  a  woman,  keep  it  alive. 

But  the  midwives  feared  God,  and  did 
not  do  as  the  king  of  Egypt  had  com- 
manded, but  saved  the  men  chiklren. 


—  u  — 

And  tlie  king  called  for  them  and  said : 
What  is  it  that  you  meant  to  do,  that  you 
would  save  the  men  children? 

They  answered :  The  Hebrew  women  are 
not,  as  the  Egyptian  women  ;  for  the}-  them- 
selves are  skillful  in  the  office  of  a  midwife ; 
and  the}^  are  delivered  before  we  come  to 
them. 

Therefore  God  dealt  well  with  the  mid- 
wives:  and  the  people  multiplied  and  grew 
exceedingly  strong. 

And  because  the  midwives  feared  God, 
he  built  them  houses. 

Pharaoh  therefore  charged  all  his  people, 
saying:  Whatsoever  shall  be  born  of  the 
male  sex,  ye  shall  cast  into  the  river  ;  what- 
soever of  the  female,  ye  shall  save  alive. 

After  this  there  went  a  man  of  the  house 
of  Levi,  and  took  a  wife  of  his  own  kin- 
dred. 

And  she  conceived,  and  bore  a  son :  and 
seeing  him  a  goodl}^  child,  hid  him  three 
months. 

And  when  she  could  hide  him  no  longer, 
she  took  a  basket  of  bulrushes,  and  daubed 
it  with  slime  and  pitch :  and  put  the  little 
babe  therein,  and  laid  him  in  the  sedges  b}- 
the  river's  brink. 

His  sister  standing  afar  off,  and  taking 
notice  what  would  be  done. 

And  behold  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  came 


—  12  — 

down  to  wasli  herself  in  the  river;  and  her 
maids  walked  by  the  river's  brink.  And 
when  she  saw  the  basket  in  the  sedges, 
she  sent  one  of  her  maids  for  it:  and  when 
it  was  brought,  she  opened  it,  and  seeing 
within  it  an  infant  crying,  having  compas- 
sion on  it  she  said  :  This  is  one  of  the  babes 
of  the  Hebrews. 

And  the  child's  sister  said  to  her  :  Shall 
I  go,  and  call  to  thee  a  Hebrew  woman,  to 
nurse  the  babe  ? 

She  answered :  Go.  The  maid  went  and 
called  her  mother. 

And  Pharaoh's  daughter  said  to  her : 
Take  this  child  and  nurse  him  for  me :  I 
will  give  thee  thy  wages.  The  woman  took, 
and  NURSED  the  child  :  and  when  he  was 
grown  up  she  delivered  him  to  Pharaoh's 
daughter. 

And  she  adopted  him  for  a  son,  and  called 
him  Moses,  saying:  "Because  I  took  him 
out  of  the  water." 

Israelites  in  Egypt.  —  The  Hebrews 
are  a  very  ancient  people  and  most  probably 
received  their  name  through  Abraham,  who 
emigrated  from  Ur  of  Chaldea  into  Pales- 
tine or  Canaan  in  the  year  192 1  B.  C. 

The  Canaanites  called  the  stranger  Eber 
(beyond),  because  he  came  from  beyond 
(eber)  the  Euphrates.  Abraham  had  an 
only  son,  Isaac,  who  had  a  son  Jacob.    The 


—  13  — 

Israelites  were  named  for  Jacob  who    had 
been  surnamed  Israel. 

Jacob  had  twelve  sons,  Joseph  being  the 
eleventh.  Jacob  loved  Joseph  more  dearly 
than  any  of  his  other  sons,  and  bestowed 
on  him  openly  many  tokens  of  his  favor- 
itism. Joseph  thereby  incurred  the  hatred 
and  enmity  of  his  brothers,  who  finally 
conspired  to  sell  him  as  a  slave  to  some 
Ishmaelite  merchants.  These  traders  bore 
the  young  man  away  to  Egypt  and  sold 
him  to  the  first  officer  of  Pharaoh's  guard, 
Putiphar. 

Joseph  because  of  his  wisdom  and  virtues 
reached  great  distinction  in  Egypt,  becom- 
ing indeed  the  first  minister  of  the  country. 
During  the  sway  of  an  universal  famine  he 
invited  Jacob  and  all  his  famil}^  to  Egypt, 
where  they  were  welcomed  with  great  kind- 
ness by  Pharaoh. 

The  Israelites,  being  a  pastoral  people, 
established  themselves  in  Goshen,  a  part 
of  Eg3^pt  very  favorably  adapted  to  the 
raising  of  flocks. 

In  progress  of  time  the  Israelites  rapidty 
increased  in  numbers  and  possessions.  The 
Eg3^ptians  regarded  this  rapid  growth  of 
the  descendants  of  Jacob  as  a  menace  to 
their  own  safety  and  resolved  to  slowty  ex- 
terminate them.  According^  the  Egyp- 
tians reduced  the  Israelites  to  a  condition 


—  14  — 

of  the  basest  bondage,  imposing  npon  them 
the  most  difficult  and  painful  tasks. 

It  was  finally  decreed  by  Egypt's  ruler, 
as  described  in  Exodus,  that  every  male 
child  born  of  the  Hebrews  should  be  thrown 
into  the  Nile.  It  was  during  the  progress 
of  this  bitter  persecution  that  Moses  w^as 
born.  His  father,  Amram,  and  his  mother, 
Jochebed,  were  both  descendants  of  Levi, 
the  third  son  of  Jacob.  Moses  was  born  in 
Heliopolis  in  the  year  157 1  B.  C. 

Childhood. — All  accounts  agree  that  the 
infant  Moses  was  a  most  beautiful  and  win- 
some babe.  The  united  artifices  of  his 
mother  Jochebed  and  his  sister  Miriam  suc- 
ceeded in  eluding  the  vigilance  of  Pha- 
raoh's myrmidons  and  saving  the  darling 
infant's  life  for  the  space  of  three  months. 
Escape  for  the  child  being  no  longer  pos- 
sible they  hid  him  in  a  neatly  fashioned 
basket  of  papyrus  and  placed  it  among  the 
reeds  of  the  sedgy  Nile,  close  to  the  spot 
where  Thermuthis  or  Merris,  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  was  wont  to  bathe. 

With  beating  heart  and  burning  brow 
the  eager  sister,  concealed  behind  a  friendly 
bush,  watched  for  the  coming  princess. 
Thermuthis  approaches  the  familiar  spot 
and  perceiving  the  basket  opens  it  and  dis- 
covers the  laughing  babe.  The  princess 
was  at  once  charmed  with  the  sweet-faced. 


—  15  — 

red-lipped  smiling  boy  and  resolved  to  save 
him. 

Now,  Miriam  opportunely  appears  and 
volunteers  to  find  a  Hebrew  woman,  if  the 
princess  so  desired,  to  nurse  the  babe.  Ther- 
muthis  gladly  yields  and  the  child's  mother, 
Jochebed,  is  secured  as  a  nurse. 

The  princess  instructed  the  willing  moth- 
er to  carefully  rear  the  child  at  her  expense. 

When  the  child  was  sufficiently  grown 
he  was  taken  to  the  palace  and  given  to 
Pharaoh's  daughter,  who  adopted  him  for 
her  son.  Josephus  tells  us  that  Moses  is 
the  Egyptian  for  SAVED  from  the  waters. 

Nature  had  favored  Moses  with  a  trans- 
cendently  gifted  mind.  The  Princess  Ther- 
muthis  bestowed  the  greatest  care  upon  his 
education  and  culture.  She  surrounded 
him  with  the  ablest  masters  and  had  him 
thoroughly  instructed  in  all  the  knowledge 
and  science  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Assyria  and 
particularly  of  Chaldea. 

Josephus. — ''  For  Moses  was  the  son  of 
Amram,  who  was  the  son  of  Caath,  whose 
father,  Levi,  was  the  son  of  Jacob,  who  was 
the  son  of  Isaac,  who  was  the  son  of  Abra- 
ham. Now  Moses'  understanding  became 
superior  to  his  age,  nay,  far  beyond  that 
standard ;  and  when  he  was  taught,  he  dis- 
covered greater  quickness  of  apprehension 
than  was  usual  at  his  age ;  and  his  actions 


—  16  — 

at  that  time  promised  greater,  when  he 
should  come  to  the  age  of  a  man.  God  did 
also  give  him  that  tallness,  when  he  was 
but  three  years  old,  as  was  wonderful ;  and 
for  his  beauty,  there  was  nobody  so  unpo- 
lite  as,  when  they  saw  Moses,  they  were  not 
greatly  surprised  at  the  beauty  of  his  coun- 
tenance :  nay,  it  happened  frequently,  that 
those  that  met  him  as  he  was  carried  along 
the  road,  were  obliged  to  turn  again  upon 
seeing  the  child,  that  they  left  what  they 
were  about,  and  stood  still  a  great  while  to 
look  on  him ;  for  the  beauty  of  the  child 
was  so  remarkable  and  natural  to  him  on 
many  accounts,  that  it  detained  the  specta- 
tors, and  made  them  stay  longer  to  look 
upon  him. 

Thermuthis,  therefore,  perceiving  him  to 
be  so  remarkable  a  child,  adopted  him  for 
her  son,  having  no  child  of  her  own.  And 
when  one  time  she  had  carried  Moses  to  her 
father,  she  shewed  him  to  him,  and  said 
she  thought  to  make  him  her  father's  suc- 
cessor, if  it  should  please.  God  she  should 
have  no  legitimate  child  of  her  own  ;  and 
said  to  him,  ^'  I  have  brought  up  a  child 
who  is  of  a  divine  form,  and  of  a  generous 
mind ;  and  as  I  have  received  him  from  the 
bounty  of  the  river,  in  a  wonderful  manner, 
I  thought  proper  to  adopt  him  for  my  son, 
and  the  heir  of  thy  Kingdom."     And  when 


—  17  — 

she  had  said  this,  she  put  the  infant  into 
her  father's  hands ;  so  he  took  him,  and 
hugged  him  close  to  his  breast ;  and  on  his 
daughter's  account,  in  a  pleasant  way,  put 
his  diadem  upon  his  head  ;  but  Moses  threw 
it  down  to  the  ground,  and,  in  a  puerile 
mood,  he  wreathed  it  round,  and  trod  upon 
it  with  his  feet ;  which  seemed  to  bring 
along  with  it  an  evil  presage  concerning 
the  Kingdom  of  Egypt.  But  when  the 
sacred  scribe  saw  this,  (he  was  the  same 
person  who  foretold  that  his  nativity  would 
bring  the  dominion  of  that  kingdom  low,) 
he  made  a  violent  attempt  to  kill  him  :  and 
crying  out  in  a  frightful  manner,  he  said, 
"  This,  O  King,  this  child  is  he  of  whom 
God  foretold,  that  if  we  kill  him  we  shall 
be  in  no  danger ;  he  himself  affords  an  at- 
testation to  the  prediction  of  the  same 
thing,  by  his  trampling  upon  thy  govern- 
ment, and  treading  upon  thy  diadem.  Take 
him,  therefore,  out  of  the  way,  and  deliver 
the  Egyptians  from  the  fear  they  are  in 
about  him ;  and  deprive  the  Hebrews  of 
the  hope  they  have  of  being  encouraged  by 
him."  But  Thermuthis  prevented  him,  and 
snatched  the  child  away.  And  the  King 
was  not  hasty  to  slay  him.  God  himself, 
whose  providence  protected  JMoses,  inclin- 
ing the  King  to  spare  him.  He  w^as,  there- 
fore,   educated    with    great    care.      So    the 

2 


—  18  — 

Hebrews  depended  on  him,  and  were  of 
good  hopes  that  great  things  would  be  done 
by  him ;  but  the  Eg3^ptians  were  suspicious 
of  what  would  follow  such  his  education. 
Yet  because,  if  Moses  had  been  slain,  there 
was  no  one,  either  akin  or  adopted,  that 
had  any  oracle  on  his  side  for  pretending 
to  the  crown  of  Egypt,  and  likely  to  be  of 
greater  advantage  to  them,  they  abstained 
from  killing  him."    (Ant.,  II,  Chap.  9,  6-7). 

In  his  early  manhood  Moses  stood  im- 
mensely high  with  the  ruling  powers  of 
Egypt.  He  held  a  princely  rank  at  Court 
and  is  said  to  have  become  a  priest  and  to 
have  led  with  great  success  Egyptian  armies 
against  Ethiopia. 

When  Moses  had  •  attained  his  thirtieth 
year  he  forsook  the  palace  of  the  Pharaohs, 
and  made  his  home  with  the  oppressed 
Hebrews,  his  countrymen,  espousing  their 
cause  and  boldly  seeking  the  amelioration 
of  their  sad  condition. 

On  one  occasion  he  came  upon  an  Egyp- 
tian overseer  in  the  very  act  of  cruelly  pun- 
ishing a  helpless  Hebrew  slave.  Moses  slew 
the  oppressor  and  immediately  fled  from 
Egypt.^ 

In  his  flight  he  crossed  the  Red  Sea  and 
entered  Midian,  a  province  of  Asia,  border- 
ing on  Egypt.  During  his  wanderings  in 
Midian  he  did  a  kindly  service  to  the  seven 


—  19  — 

daugliters  of  Jethro,  a  wise  priest  of  that 
country.  Moses  protected  these  maidens, 
who  were  tending  their  father's  flocks,  from 
neighboring  shepherds  who  had  offered 
them  some  rudeness.  Jethro  hearing  of  it 
hospitably  received  Moses  into  his  family. 
Moses  married  Zipporah,  Jethro's  daughter, 
and  tended  the  flocks  of  his  father-in-law 
during  forty  years. 

Vocation  of  Moses.  —  It  was  in  the 
eighty-sixth  year  of  his  age  that  God  called 
Moses  to  free  the  Hebrews  from  the  bond- 
age of  Egypt.  Moses  having  led  his  flocks 
on  one  occasion  as  far  into  the  desert  as 
Mount  Horeb,  which  is  the  northeast  peak 
of  Mount  Sinai,  God  manifested  himself  to 
him  in  the  burning  bush  and  commissioned 
him  to  deliver  his  people. 

Moses,  conscious  of  the  almost  insuper- 
able difficulty  of  the  undertaking  and  dif- 
fident of  his  own  powers  for  the  successful^ 
accomplishment  of  such  a  mighty  task,  be- 
sought God  to  release  him  from  the  re- 
sponsibility. But  God  encouraged  him  and 
promised  to  be  his  helper  in  all  things. 

Moses,  b}^  God's  direction,  associated  with 
him  in  the  undertaking  his  brother  Aaron, 
who  was  eloquent  and  fluent  of  speech.  It 
may  be  here  remarked  that  Moses  was  more 
of  a  man  of  counsel  and  of  action  than  of 
a  flowery  tongue. 


-20  — 

With  the  assistance  of  God  the  brothers 
gained  the  entire  confidence  and  hearty  co- 
operation of  the  Hebrew  people.  Moses 
by  his  wisdom  and  miraculous  powers  won 
the  esteem  of  the  then  ruling  prince  of 
Egypt,  his  ministers  and  courtiers.  By 
his  wonderful  signs  and  prodigies  he  com- 
pletely discomfited  the  Egyptian  priest- 
hood. 

The  brothers  demanded  of  Pharaoh  in 
Jehovah's  name  that  he  would  allow  the 
Hebrew  people  to  go  forth  into  the  wilder- 
ness to  offer  sacrifice  to  their  deity  and 
celebrate  their  spring  festival  of  the  Pass- 
over. 

Pharaoh  refusing  to  grant  the  permis- 
sion, God  through  Moses,  made  use  of  the 
plagues  of  Egypt  to  force  the  king  into 
acquiescence. 

These  plagues  were  for  the  most  part 
natural  and  customary  visitations  of  the 
land  of  Egypt,  but  God,  as  is  often  his  wont, 
made  use  miraculously  of  the  natural  phe- 
nomena to  carry  out  his  own  wise  ends. 

These  were  the  plagues  emplo3^ed  by 
Moses  :  The  turning  of  the  waters  into 
blood  ;  visitations  of  frogs  ;  gnats  ;  flies  ; 
death  of  cattle  ;  ulcers  in  men  and  beasts  ; 
hail  and  fire ;  locusts  ;  darkness  ;  death  of 
the  first  born. 

During  the  progress  of  each  plague  Pharaoh 


—  21  — 

promised  to  let  the  Hebrews  go,  but  on  its 
cessation  lie  rescinded  this  promise. 

The  tenth  plague,  the  death  of  the  first 
born,  however,  so  terrified  the  Egyptians  and 
Pharaoh  that  the  Israelites  were  at  last  allowed 
to  depart.  On  the  morning  after  the  passage 
of  the  destro3dng  angel,  every  dwelling  of  the 
Egyptians  had  a  dead  body,  from  the  palace 
to  the  poorest  cabin.  The  descendants  of 
Jacob  had  dwelt  in  Egypt  for  four  hundred 
and  thirty  years,  and  in  their  exodus  num- 
bered 600,000  fighting  men.  The  Egyptians 
were  very  reluctant  to  permit  the  Hebrews  to 
go  because  they  were  of  vast  utility  to  them- 
selves, being  the  veriest  slaves  and  doing  all 
the  servile  work  of  Egypt. 

Flight. — Apparently  the  Israelites  de- 
parted for  the  wilderness  to  perform  a  reli- 
gious ceremou}^  required  by  their  God  and 
appropriate  to  the  season,  but  they  had  their 
secret  instructions  from  Moses  that  the}^  were 
leaving  Egypt  no  more  to  return,  but  to  jour- 
ney towards  the  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
hone}^  that  Jehovah  had  promised  to  their 
forefathers. 

Canaan,  their  ancient  heritage  and  the 
land  of  Jacob,  was  the  object  of  their  flight. 
Fearing  to  incur  the  hostility  of  the  Philis- 
tines the  Hebrews  had  to  abandon  the  direct 
eastward  road  leading  to  Palestine  and  travel 


—  22  — 

towards  the  southwest,  which  led  them  to  the 
northern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Escape. — Pharaoh  after  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites,  repented  letting  them  go  and  pur- 
sued them  with  a  great  army,  coming  up  with 
them  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Here 
again  the  Lord  interposed  to  deliver  his  peo- 
ple and  punish  their  persecutors.  Moses 
miraculously  divided  the  v/aters  of  the  gulf 
of  Suez  forming  the  N.  W.  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  the  Hebrews  gladly  crossed  to  elude 
their  pursuers.  The  Eg^^ptians  followed 
eagerly  >and  had  just  attacked  the  escaping 
hordes  of  Israel,  when  the  waters  returned 
suddenly  in  great  gulfs  and  swallowed  up 
Pharaoh  and  his  hosts. 

Journey  to  Sinai. — Leaving  the  shores 
of  the  Red  Sea  the  Hebrews  entered  the 
desert  of  Sur,  where  tlie}^  suffered  greatly 
from  thirst  and  hunger  and  from  wearisome 
marches  and  countermarches  through  the 
trackless  desert.  To  add  to  their  hardships 
they  were  fiercely  attacked  by  the  Amalek- 
ites,  a  predatory  tribe  of  Arabs  or  Bedouins, 
whom,  however,  under  the  wise  and  skillful 
leadership  of  Moses,  they  succeeded  in  re- 
pulsing. 

In  his  control  and  government  of  the  Israel- 
ites, particularly  in  the  early  stages  of  their 
wanderings,  Moses  displayed  the  most  extra- 
ordinary qualities  of  an  organizer  and  leader. 


—  23  — 

To  feed  between  two  and  three  million  of  peo- 
ple in  the  wilderness  was  in  itself  no  easy 
matter.  Besides  the  Israelites  had  almost 
instantly  passed  from  a  condition  of  the  most 
abject  slavery  to  that  of  the  wildest  freedom. 
They  were  equally  unfitted  for  self-govern- 
ment and  undisciplined  to  repel  the  attacks  of 
the  war-like  Bedouins  that  harrassed  their 
marches.  They  had  been  half-brujtalized  by 
their  bondage  and  the  finer  instincts  of  hu- 
manity were  almost  crushed  in  them.  Their 
sense  of  gratitude  to  God  and  Moses  for  all 
that  had  been  wrought  for  them  was  feeble 
and  often  entirely  forgotten.  Their  niur- 
murings  and  complaints  were  constant  and 
they  frequently  broke  into  open  rebellion 
against  their  leaders  and  expressed  their  reso- 
lution to  return  to  the  flesh-pots  of  Egypt. 

Moses  proved  himself  equal  to  every  emer- 
gency, and  though  the  meekest  of  men,  could 
be  firm  and  unbending  when  discipline  re- 
quired it.  He  proved  himself  the  leader, 
legislator,  ruler,  judge,  seer  and  father  of  his 
people.  God  through  his  instrumentalit}^ 
had  wrought  so  many  signal  wonders  that 
nothing  could  shake  the  people's  faith  and 
confidence  in  him. 

Sinai. — In  the  third  month  of  their  flight 
from  Eg3^pt  the  Hebrew^s  reached  Mount 
Sinai  and  encamped  around  its  base.  Moses 
ascended  the  mountain  to  commune  with  God 


—  24  — 

and  receive  tHe  divine  commissions  for  the 
people.  On  the  third  morning,  the  people  be- 
ing reverently  assembled  by  the  direction  of 
Moses  aronnd  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  the 
voice  of  God  was  heard  declaring  his  precepts. 
Nothing  could  be  more  awe-inspiring  or  sub- 
limely impressive  than  the  manner  in  which 
the  commandments  were  announced  to  the 
people.  Lightning  and  tempest  and  the  rock- 
ing of  the  great  mountain  formed  the  prelude 
to  their  delivery. 

Sinai  is  really  a  range  of  mountains,  in 
Arabia  Petrsea,  separated  on  the  west  from 
Egypt  by  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  and  from  a  lofty 
peak  of  which,  Jebel  Musa  (lat.  29°  20'  N.), 
God  gave  the  commandments. 

Moses  again  ascended  the  mountain  for 
further  communion  with  God  and  remained 
conversing  with  him  for  the  space  of  forty 
days  and  nights.  During  the  abseRice  of 
Moses  the  Israelites  forgot  God  and  his  new 
precepts  so  far  as  to  fall  into  idolatry,  making 
a  golden  idol  and  offering  it  divine  worship 
after  the  manner  of  some  Egyptians  who  had 
accompanied  them  in  their  flight. 

Moses  on  his  return  was  very  much  in- 
censed at  finding  this  condition  of  affairs. 
He  severely  rebuked  the  people  for  their 
crimes  and  ingratitude  and  sentenced  a  great 
number  of  the  more  guilty  to  death. 


—  25  — 

Priesthood  and  Tabernacle.  —  It  is 
true  that  from  the  earliest  times  the  He- 
brews had  some  form  of  ceremonial  law  in 
their  religious  worship.  Still  before  the 
advent  of  Moses  they  had  no  regular  priest- 
hood, the  patriarchs  and  heads  of  families 
fulfilling  the  office  and  worshipping  the 
Lord  more  or  less  after  their  individual 
tastes.  Moses  now,  however,  under  Jeho- 
vah's direction,  established  a  fixed  cere- 
monial and  a  regular  priesthood.  God 
called  the  tribe  of  Levi  to  the  priesthood, 
while  the  office  of  high  priest  was  to  be 
filled  by  Aaron  and  his  descendants. 

Neither  did  the  Israelites  have,  hitherto, 
a  fixed  place  of  worship.  Moses  now  re- 
solved to  build  a  rich  shrine  or  tabernacle 
to  be  solely  devoted  to  the  services  of  the 
Lord.  He  constructed  a  shrine  that  was 
portable  and  could  be  borne  about  by  the 
Israelites  in  their  w^anderings  through  the 
wilderness. 

It  was  built  of  the  most  precious  mate- 
rials obtainable  and  was  45  ft.  long,  15  feet 
wide  and  15  feet  high.  The  boards  com- 
posing it  were  of  hard  fine  wood  and  cov- 
ered with  plates  of  gold.  The  pieces  could 
be  taken  apart,  carried  from  place  to  place, 
and  again  easily  replaced  in  position. 

The  sacred  shrine  consisted  of  two  parts, 
the  outer   and  larger   part  was   called  the 


—  26  — 

Sanctuary,  and  the  inner  and  smaller  part, 
the  Holy  of  Holies.  This  beautiful  taber- 
nacle was  adorned  with  the  richest  and 
choicest  tapestry.  At  the  entrance  of  the 
Sanctuary  was  hung  a  curtain  of  rich  em- 
broidery and  another  more  precious  curtain 
divided  the  Sanctuary  from  the  Holy  of 
Holies. 

The  ark  of  the  covenant  made  almost  of 
solid  gold  was  placed  within  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  The  rod  of  Aaron,  a  vase  filled 
with  manna,  the  food  of  the  wilderness, 
and  the  tables  of  the  law  were  placed  in 
the  ark  of  the  covenant.  It  was  called  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  because  of  its  con- 
taining the  tables  of  the  commandments  or 
the  Old  Covenant  between  God  and  his 
people. 

The  lid  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  en- 
tirely of  gold,  w^as  called  the  Propitiatory. 
On  this  lid  were  fastened  two  cherubim  of 
beaten  gold,  facing  each  other. 

A  table  covered  with  gold  stood  in  the 
sanctuary  on  \^hich  were  daily  placed  the 
unleavened  loaves  of  proposition  and  a 
golden  cup,  filled  with  wine.  The  seven 
branched  candlestick  stood  on  this  table, 
also,  on  which  burned  continuall}-  seven  oil 
lamps.  Before  the  table  stood  an  altar  of 
incense  from  which  sweetest  perfumes  con- 
stantly arose. 


—  27  — 

A  court  to  contain  the  people  was  formed 
around  the  tabernacle,  in  which  was  placed 
a  brass  altar  of  holocausts  and  a  brazen 
laver  for  the  priests. 

Feasts. — When  Moses  had  occasion  to 
consult  the  Lord  on  any  grave  concern  he 
entered  solemnly  into  the  Holy  of  Holies 
and  received  God's  answer  from  the  Propi- 
tiatory. Moses,  by  God's  command,  pre- 
scribed the  kinds  of  sacrifices,  bloody  and 
unbloody,  to  be  offered,  and  also  the  times 
and  manner  of  offering  them. 

Moses  also,  by  the  direction  of  God,  in- 
stituted the  Jewish  feasts.  The  Passover 
in  commemoration  of  the  deliverance  from 
Eg3^pt ;  the  feast  of  Pentecost  in  remem- 
brance of  the  law  given  on  Mount  Sinai ; 
and  the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles,  when  the 
liarvest  was  gathered  in,  to  keep  in  mem- 
ory the  fact  that  their  fathers  dwelt  in 
tents  in  the  wilderness.  Moses  dedicated 
the  tabernacle  and  consecrated  Aaron  the 
high  priest  of  the  Lord  with  the  most  im- 
pressive and  gorgeous  ceremonies. 

Death  of  Moses.  —  From  the  base  of 
Sinai  the  Israelites  renewed  their  journey 
towards  Canaan,  the  land  of  promise.  God 
was  so  displeased  with  their  murmurings, 
rebellions,  infidelit}'  and  hardness  of  heart 
that  he  directed  Moses  to  keep  them  wan- 
derers in  the  desert  for  the  space  of  forty 


—  28  — 

years.  From  Sinai  they  passed  into  Kadesh 
(Phoran,  Zin),  East  of  Goslien  in  Egypt, 
and  on  the  southern  borders  of  Canaan, 
where  most  of  those  long  weary  years  were 
spent.  Moses,  too,  thought  that  it  would 
be  fool-hardy  to  lead  an  unorganized,  undis- 
ciplined mass  of  freed  slaves,  such  as  the 
Hebrews  really  were,  against  the  war-like 
tribes  of  Canaan. 

During  their  sojourn  in  the  desert  Moses 
gradually  educated  and  completely  changed 
them  into  a  new  and  great  nation,  so  that 
when  they  finally  undertook  the  conquest 
of  Palestine,  they  were  thoroughly  equal  to 
the  task.  Above  all  he  had  inspired  them 
with  such  faith  and  trust  in  God,  that  noth- 
,ing  could  resist  their  united  zeal. 

Towards  the  close  of  their  forty  years  of 
wanderings  Moses  led  the  people  into  north- 
ern Moab,  which  he  wrested  from  the  Ani- 
morite  King,  its  then  ruler.  Apprising  the 
Israelites  of  his  approaching  death,  appoint- 
ing Joshua  as  his  successor  and  beseeching 
them  to  be  faithful  to  God  under  all  circum- 
stances, he  entered  Mount  Nebo  to  die. 
From  the  heights  of  Nebo  he  obtained  his 
first  and  last  glimpse  of  the  distant  Canaan, 
the  land  promised  by  God  to  the  patriarchs, 
for  which  he  had  pined  all  his  life.  For  a 
momentary  diffidence,  striking  the  rock 
twice,  God  punished  him  by  denying  him 


—  29  — 

entrance  into  Canaan.     He  was  bnried  in  a 
valley  in  the  land  of  Moab. 

His  Character. — There  are  few  names, 
if  indeed  any,  in  history,  sacred  or  profane, 
as  towering  as  that  of  Moses.  Like  a  great 
mountain  peak  it  soars  aloft  and  remains  in 
solemn  solitary  grandeur,  undimmed  and 
undiminished  by  all  the  centuries.  It  has 
been  too  lofty  to  be  reached  or  bathed  b}^ 
the  mists  and  clouds  of  time. 

He  was  the  first  to  foster  the  growth  of 
a  national  unity  among  the  tribes  of  Israel 
and  took  advantage  of  the  pressure  of 
necessity  to  weld  together  the  most  diverse 
elements. 

He  heroically  endeavored  to  make  his 
people  a  truly  religious  nation,  cultivating 
every  noble  virtue  for  Jehovah's  sake  and 
seeking  God's  aid  in  every  great  emergency 
of  life.  He  attributed  all  his  triumphs  to 
God  and  did  notking  of  any  moment  with- 
out God's  direction.  He  thus  connected 
every  greatness,  every  success,  every  noble 
achievement,  every  exemplary  virtue  with 
the  name  of  God  and  the  idea  of  religion. 

His  Virtues.  —  Under  the  pressure  of 
every  excitement  and  in  all  the  supreme 
moments  of  danger  he  displayed  calmness. 
This  calmness  was  manifested  in  his  deal- 
ings with  Pharaoh,  in  the  crossing  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  in  the  episode  of  the  golden 


—  30  — 

calf,  when  he  returned  from  the  mountain 
and  found  that  even  Aaron  had  yielded  to 
weakness. 

He  was  disinterested,  attributing  every 
triumph  to  God  and  claiming  nothing  for 
himself,  and  establishing  the  of&ce  of  high 
priest  in  the  off-spring  of  Aaron  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  his  own  sons  and  their  descend- 
ants. 

His  patience  was  invincible.  No  cross, 
no  trial,  not  even  the  unexpected  could 
ruffle  it.  The  seditions  fostered  by  the 
jealousy  of  the  elders  and  other  unceasing 
vexations  could  not  sour  the  unfailing 
sweetness  of  the  temper  of  the  "  man  of 
God." 

He  had  perseverance.  During  all  the 
opposition  of  Pharaoh  and  the  desolate 
years  of  the  wilderness  he  persevered  in  his 
aim  to  reach  the  promised  land. 

He  had  wisdom  in  council  as  he  had  for- 
titude in  war. 

He  was  the  meekest  of  men.  His  name 
has  ever  been  the  Biblical  synonym  for 
meekness,  and  still  he  possessed  the  keen- 
est energy  and  when  occasion  called  for  it 
the  swiftest  rapidity  of  action. 

And  notwithstanding  his  forbearing  dis- 
position he  could  be  severe  when  God  di- 
rected it  and  crime  deserved  it,  as  in  the 
punishment  of  the  guilty  followers  of  Core, 


—  31  — 

Datlian  and  Abiron,  as  also  in  the  instance 
of  the  idolaters  at  the  base  of  Sinai. 

JosEPHUS. — "Now  Moses  lived  in  all  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years;  a  third  part  of 
which  time,  abating  one  month,  he  was  the 
people's  ruler ;  and  he  died  on  the  last  month 
of  the  year,  which  is  called  b}^  the  Macedoni- 
ans DYSTRUS,  but  by  us  ADAR,  ou  the  first 
day  of  the  month.  He  was  one  that  exceeded 
all  men  that  ever  were  in  understanding,  and 
made  the  best  use  of  what  understanding  sug- 
gested to  him.  He  had  a  very  graceful  way 
of  speaking  and  addressing  himself  to  the 
multitude;  and  as  to  his  other  qualifications, 
he  had  such  a  full  command  of  his  passions, 
as  if  he  had  hardly  any  such  in  his  soul,  and 
only  knew  them  by  their  names,  as  rather 
perceiving  them  in  other  men  than  in  him- 
self. He  was  also  such  a  general  of  an  army 
as  is  seldom  seen,  as  well  as  such  a  prophet 
as  was  never  known,  and  this  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  whatsoever  he  pronounced,  you 
would  think  3'ou  heard  the  voice  of  God  him- 
self. So  the  people  mourned  for  him  thirty 
days ;  nor  did  any  grief  so  deepl}^  affect  the 
Hebrews  as  did  this  upon  the  death  of  ]\Ioses ; 
nor  were  those  who  had  experienced  his  con- 
duct the  only  persons  that  desired  him,  but 
those  also  that  perused  the  laws  he  left  be- 
hind him  had  a  strong  desire  after  him,  and 
by  them    gathered   the  extraordinary  virtue 


-32- 

lie  was  master  of.  And  this  shall  suffice  for 
the  declaration  of  the  manner  of  the  death  of 
Moses."     (Ant.  IV.  8,  49.) 


Chapter  II. 

THE  PENTATEUCH.      • 

Pentateuch  is  derived  from  the  two  Greek 
words  7TBVTE.,  hve,  and  ^-'^X«c,  book,  and  is  the 
name  by  which  the  first  five  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  commonly  known ;  the  Jews, 
however,  were  wont  to  call  them  by  the  name, 
Torah,  the  law;  or  Torath  Mosheh,  the  Law 
of  Moses. 

The  books  composing  the  Pentateuch  are 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers  and 
Deuteronomy. 

Genesis  contains  the  history  of  the  world's 
creation  and  its  principal  events  to  the  time 
of  the  death  of  the  patriarch  Joseph,  and  is, 
with  the  probable  exception  of  the  book  of  Job, 
the  most  ancient  of  all  books.  Genesis  carries 
us  back  to  the  very  earliest  ages  of  our  race 
and  covers  a  period  of  more  than  2300  }^ears 
and  gives  an  account  of  man's  fall,  the  gene- 
alogies, settlements,  religion  and  destruction 
of  the  antediluvian  earth ;  of  its  re-peopling, 
the  call  of  Abraham  and  the  rise  and  growth 
of  the  Israelites. 


DO 


Exodus  tells  of  the  escape  of  the  Hebrews 
from  Egyptian  bondage  and  closes  with  the 
relation  of  their  encampment  around  Sinai. 

Leviticus  is  a  summary  of  the  laws  given 
the  Israelites  by  Moses  under  the  direction 
of  Almighty  God.  It  also  treats  of  the  sacri- 
fices, religious  festivals,  the  duties  of  the 
priests  and  Levites  and  the  ceremonial  wor- 
ship of  the  Hebrews. 

Numbers  gives  a  census  of  the  people  of 
Israel  and  describes  the  march  through  the 
wilderness  and  the  entrance  into  the  land  of 
Canaan.  It  embraces  a  period  of  38  years 
and  opens  with  the  second  month  of  the  second 
year  after  the  exodus. 

Deuteronomy  is  chiefly  devoted  to  a  reiter- 
ation of  the  precepts  of  the  law.  It  gives  an 
account,  too,  of  what  took  place  in  the  wilder- 
ness during  the  eleventh  month  and  the  first 
week  of  the  twelfth  month  in  the  40th  year 
of  the  wanderings  of  the  Hebrews.  With 
the  exception  of  the  last  chapter,  which  gives 
an  account  of  his  death,  it  was  written  by 
Moses.  This  last  chapter  was  written  by 
Josue  to  ser\^e  as  a  transition  to  his  own  book. 

Tradition. — The  constant  and  unani- 
mous tradition  of  the  Jews  and  early  Chris- 
tians ascribe  the  authorship  of  the  Penta- 
teuch to  Tyloses.  It  is  absolutely  certain 
that  it  could  be  the  work  of  Moses  alone, 
nor  was  its  authenticity  seriousl}^  disputed 


—  34- 

before  the  lyih  century.  In  the  time  of 
Our  Lord  the  Jews,  of  whatever  religious  or 
political  complexion,  universally  ascribed 
the  Pentateuch  to  the  pen  of  Moses.  The 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  Scribes  and  common 
people  were  unanimously  of  this  opinion. 
Nor  could  the}^  have  easily  fallen  into  error 
concerning  a  work  of  so  vast  moment  to 
themselves,  embracing  as  it  did  the  laws 
upon  which  their  government  and  society 
rested.  It  was,  too,  the  rule  of  their  reli- 
gious worship,  as  well  as  the  recognized 
history  of  their  race.  All  with  the  greatest 
unanimity  refer  the  Pentateuch  to  the  time 
when  their  society  was  formed  and  their 
religious  ceremonial  solemnly  instituted, 
that  is,  to  the  time  of  their  great  law-giver 
and  leader,  Moses.  Certainly  the  whole 
people  collectively  could  not  be  deceived  in 
so  vital  an  affair.  Christ  and  his  apostles 
frequently  refer  in  the  New  Testament  to 
the  Pentateuch,  designating  it  as  the  law 
of  Moses  or  the  Book  of  Moses. 

From  the  Pentateuch. — Not  only  do 
the  tradition  and  universal  consent  of  the 
Jewish  race  go  to  show  the  authenticity  of 
the  Pentateuch,  but  moreover  the  testimony 
of  the  work  itself  does  the  very  same  thing 
still  more  strongly  if  possible.  It  is  re- 
peatedly asserted  in  the  Pentateuch  that 
Moses    is    its    author    (Exod.    XVII.,    14; 


—  35 


Exod.  XXIV.,  4-7  ;  Exod.  XXX.,  27  ;  Num. 
XXXIII.,  1-2;  Num.  XXXVI.,  13;  Deut. 
XXVIII.,  61  ;  Deut.  XXIX.,  20-27  ;  Deut. 
XXX.,  19;   Deut.  XXXI.,  9-22-24. 

Profane  Authors. — The  Jews,  follow- 
ing the  precepts  of  their  religion,  in  a  great 
measure  shunned  all  intercourse  with  the 
neighboring  pagan  and  idolatrous  nations. 
On  account  of  this  extreme  exclusiveness 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  they  and 
their  affairs  were  but  little  known  to  pro- 
fane authors.  Nevertheless  many  of  such 
authors  refer  to  Moses  as  the  Jewish  Law- 
giver and  Leader.  Among  others  who  do 
so  may  be  named  Diodorus  Siculus,  Athen- 
agoras,  Tatian,  Tacitus,  Dion  Cassius, 
Juvenal,  Celsus  and  Porphry  ;  and  Josephus 
mentions  among  Egyptian  writers  Mane- 
tho,  Chaeremon  and  Apion.  There  are 
really  much  stronger  and  clearer  proofs 
from  contemporary  and  succeeding  authors 
that  Moses  wrote  the  Pentateuch  than  for 
the  authenticity  of  the  works  of  Plato, 
Aristotle,  Cicero,  Virgil  and  Livy.  Con- 
stant and  perpetual  tradition  have  given 
the  authorship  of  these  works  to  the  men 
whose  names  they  bear,  and  the  same  argu- 
ment should  hold  good  in  regard  to  the 
authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch. 

The  Old  Testament. — There  are  quo- 
tations credited  to  the  Pentateuch  in  Macha- 


—  36  — 

bees,  Esdras,  Nehemia,  the  Prophets,  Kings, 
Judges,  the  Psalms,  and  indeed  in  all  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  from  Josue  to 
Hosea.  Every  history  and  writing  of  the 
Hebrew  people  quote  from  the  Pentateuch 
and  refer  to  it  as  familiarly  known  to  all 
Jews. 

Either  the  books  of  Josue,  Nehemia,  Es- 
dras.  Kings,  and  all  the  writings  of  the 
Jewish  nation  deserve  no  belief  or  the  Pen- 
tateuch is  the  work  of  Moses.  No  mention 
except  of  him  as  its  author  has  ever  been 
made  by  any  genuinely  true  Hebrew  docu- 
ment. 

Internal  Evidence. — There  is  strong 
internal  evidence  in  the  Pentateuch  to  show 
that  it  is  the  work  of  Moses.  No  one  else 
could  have  given  to  the  book  the  impress 
of  a  diary,  by  which  it  is  so  clearly  marked, 
jotting  down  all  the  items  important  either 
in  his  own  individual  or  the  national  career, 
and  only  one  standing  in  its  very  center 
could  depict  with  such  faithful  and  glow- 
ing colors  the  life  that  moved  around  him. 
The  man  alone  could  do  it,  who  was  in  the 
midst  of  the  events. 

The  author  refers  to  the  events,  sermons 
and  laws  as  being  not  only  a  witness  of 
these  things,  but  also  a  participator  in  them. 
The  author  touches  on  many  things  which 
Moses  alone  saw  and  describes  them  so  ex- 


37 


actly  and  with  such  minuteness  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  time,  places  and  persons  that 
only  a  writer  contemporary  with  them  could 
possibly  so  recount  them.  Many  of  the 
things  written  bar  an  author  more  recent 
than  Moses.  Some  of  the  laws  govern  the 
conduct  of  the  Israelites,  while  dwelling  in 
the  tents  in  the  desert,  others  place  them 
as  not  having  as  yet  reached  Canaan. 

The  very  defect  in  the  order  of  giving 
the  laws  shows  a  contemporary  author,  as 
a  later  one  would  have  put  them  in  a  better 
order,  placing  together  the  laws  relating  to 
the  same  thing.  The  author  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, on  the  contrar}^,  records  the  laws 
without  regard  to  order  or  connection,  jot- 
ting them  down  as  they  were  given,  together 
with  a  notice  of  the  events  which  oave  oc- 
casion  to  them.  The  laws  were  written  just 
as  commanded  and  proclaimed. 

Only  the  legislator  himself  could  give 
such  a  detailed  and  at  the  same  time  so  full 
an  account  of  the  law. 

Every  undertaking,  journe}^,  transaction, 
is  described  so  accurately  as  to  place  and 
time  as  only  could  have  been  done  by 
Moses.  He  speaks  in  it  to  the  men  whom 
he  has  led  for  many  years,  as  one  who  has 
lived  througfh  all  the  events  himself.  The 
confused,  abrupt  and  fragmentary-  charac- 
ter of  the  Pentateuch  show  it  the  work- of 


—  38  — 

Moses,  since  a  later  historian  would  have 
wrought  the  mixed  mass  of  personal,  legal, 
historical  and  geographical  material  into  a 
methodical  and  systematic  whole. 

No  one  writing  after  Moses  could  possi- 
bly have  possessed  the  extraordinarily  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  contemporary  Egypt  and 
Arabia  which  appears  throughout  the  Pen- 
tateuch. And  this  is  especially  true  in  his 
historical  sketch  of  Joseph. 

The  Language. — The  very  language  of 
the  Pentateuch  is  a  strong  and  direct  argu- 
ment of  its  authenticity.  It  is  true  that 
its  language  resembles  very  much  that  of 
the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  be- 
cause, in  honor  of  Moses,  it  was  held  and 
revered  by  the  Hebrew  people  during  all 
the  ages  as  their  classic  language.  Every 
Hebrew  writer  aimed  to  imitate  its  stjde  as 
closely  as  possible. 

The  Pentateuch,  however,  offers  certain 
peculiarities  of  language  of  its  own,  such 
as  the  use  of  a  common  pronoun  of  the 
third  person  singular  for  both  the  masculine 
and  feminine  genders;  the  same  term  for 
boy  and  girl,  and  other  very  antique  modes 
of  expression,  distinctly  proving  it  to  be  a 
work  of  very  much  older  date  than  any 
other  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  with 
the  sole  exception  of  the  book  of  Job. 


-39  — 

•  Harmony  of  Versions. — Another  strong 
proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  the  extraordinary  concordance  of  the  dif- 
ferent versions  or  codices.  The  substance 
is  certainty  the  same  in  all,  no  discordance 
of  any  moment  is  found  between  them. 
The  work  of  transcribing  the  Pentateuch 
from  parchment  to  parchment  in  ancient 
times  was  slow  and  laborious  and  one  tran- 
scription occupied  a  lifetime.  The  great 
harmony  between  the  versions  is  therefore 
most  wonderful,  and  is  due  in  a  great  meas- 
ure to  the  fact  that  the  ancient  transcribers 
regarded  their  work  with  a  religious  sacred- 
ness. 

Owing  to  the  man 3^  transcriptions  there 
may  be  some  insignificant  discrepancies  in 
letters,  punctuation  and  light  words,  but  the 
integrity  is  untouched.  The  Greek  version 
made  three  centuries  before  our  era  at  Alex- 
andria, the  other  Greek  versions  of  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  and  the  Latin  versions 
wonderfully  agree  substantially. 

The  Samaritans  were  at  enmity  with  the 
Jews  and  rejected  all  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  with  the  exception  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, which  they  have  always  preser\'ed 
with  the  greatest  care  and  veneration.  Our 
version  of  the  Pentateuch  and  that  of  the 
Samaritans  agree  most  wonderfully  in  essen- 
tials.    The    Samaritan    Pentateuch,    with    a 


—  40  — 

very  few  characteristic  alterations,  is  an  ac- 
curate transcript  of  our  Pentateuch,  and  this  ' 
would  have  been  an  utter  impossibility,  con- 
sidering the  hostile  relations  between  the 
Jews  and  Samaritans,  if  it  had  not  been  well 
known  as  a  genuine  document  before  the 
division  of  the  empire. 

Historically  True. — What  is  related  in 
the  Pentateuch  must  be  historically  true. 
The  tradition  and  consent  of  the  whole  Jewish 
people  prove  this.  Moses  could  not  have 
recorded  as  a  fact  some  storied  fable  or  grave 
falsehood  without  being  contradicted  by  the 
Jewish  people,  who  were  witnesses  of  w^hat 
he  related.  The  book  was  preserved  and 
guarded  with  the  most  jealous  care  and  was 
kept  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  Ev^ry 
seventh  year  it  had  to  be  read  to  the  people  in 
public.  Certain  priestl}^,  sanitary  and  other 
laws  required  continual  reference  to  it,  so  that 
certain  portions  of  it  were  widely  m  use  at 
an  earl}^  period.  It  was  necessary  that  ever}^ 
Synagogue,  according  to  the  law,  should 
have  a  roll  of  the  Pentateuch,  written  on 
parchment  and  certain  portions  therefrom 
read  on  the  Sabbath  and  feast  days. 

The  moral  integrity  of  the  author,  who 
in  a  grave  and  simple  style,  relates  events 
of  which  he  himself  performed  the  chief 
parts,  great  public  events  seen  b}^  all  the 
people,  commands    the    greatest   faith;    be- 


—  41  — 

cause  the}^  are  told  with  the  consent  of  the 
people  who  witnessed  them,  and  are  more- 
over attested  by  public  monuments. 

Moses,  too,  by  the  tradition  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation  enjoyed  the  greatest  fame  for  his 
virtues,  and  his  great  integrity  is  easily 
gathered  from  the  writings  themselves. 
The  style  is  grave  and  simple  and  so  free 
from  any  sign  of  ostentation  or  art  that 
truth  itself  seems  mirrored  in  the  sacred 
page. 

The  whole  narration  coalesces  well  to- 
gether and  all  things  look  harmonious  and 
consonant.  Moses  saw  and  witnessed  with 
his  own  eyes  most  of  what  he  relates,  and 
the  truth  of  what  he  recounts  but  did  not 
witness  is  sustained  by  such  indices  as  to 
remove  all  deception. 

Monuments  were  erected,  fea^s  institut- 
ed, and  rites  celebrated,  in  memory  of  the 
things  done. 

The  Israelites  had  the  greatest  faith  in 
its  historical  value  and  guarded  it  with  the 
greatest  care  as  a  work  absolutely  true  and 
inspired  by  God. 

Moses  not  Deceived. — Moses  was  not 
deceived  concerning  the  truth  and  historic 
value  of  the  things  related  b}^  him  in  the 
Pentateuch.  He  was  educated  with  every 
care  by  Pharaoh's  daughter  and  was  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  all  the  knowledge 


—  42  — 

of  tliat  time  and  particularly  with  regard 
to  the  affairs  of  Egypt. 

No  man  of  his  day  could  possibly  have 
known  as  well  and  as  accurateh^  as  he  those 
things  narrated  by  him  in  Exodus  about 
the  bondage  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt. 
And  the  things  related  in  the  three  later 
books  were  either  performed  by  Moses 
himself  or  he  was  an  eye-witness  of  them. 

It  was  Moses  who  saw  and  heard  God  in 
the  burning  bush,  stood  before  Pharaoh, 
led  the  people  forth  from  bondage  and  in- 
flicted the  plagues  on  the  Egyptians.  It 
was  Moses  that  guided  the  Israelites 
through  the  Red  Sea,  tarried  with  them 
forty  years  in  the  wilderness.  It  was  Moses 
that  received  the  Law  from  God  on  Sinai 
and  promulgated  it  to  the  people.  No  bet- 
ter nor  more  capable  witness  to  these  facts 
could  possibly  be  conceived  of  than  Moses, 
who  himself  received  the  many  instructions 
regarding  these  things  from  God  and  pub- 
lished them  to  the  people.  Moses  could  not 
be  deceived  in  narrating  these  things  in 
which  he  himself  was  the  chief  partici- 
pator. 

And  although  Moses  was  indeed  not  a 
witness  of  the  things  described  by  him  in 
Genesis,  still  he  could  have  obtained  the 
knowledge  of  them  in  a  most  certain  man- 
ner.    The  things  which  preceded  the  crea- 


—  43  — 

tion  of  man  could  only  be  known  from 
divine  revelation  made  either  to  Adam,  the 
Patriarchs  or  Moses  himself,  whom  God 
often  favored  with  his  conversation. 

Those  things  which  followed  th^  creation 
of  man  Moses  could  ascertain  from  ancient 
traditions  handed  down  in  the  families  of 
the  Patriarchs.  This  tradition  embraced 
the  divine  revelations  and  divine  promises 
made  to  the  fallen  race  of  man  through  the 
family  of  Abraham. 

It  was  not  very  difficult  for  Moses  to  col- 
lect the  truthful  history  of  the  times  pre- 
ceding his  own,  freed  from  all  fiction,  for 
according  to  the  Hebrew  text  the  space 
from  his  birth  to  the  creation  of  man  was 
scarcely  2400  years,  and  such  was  the  long 
lives  of  the  Patriarchs,  that  only  six  gen- 
erations intervened  between  Aloses  and  the 
creation  of  Adam.  Moses  easih^  learned 
from  his  father,  Amram,  the  whole  history 
of  Joseph,  Jacob  and  Isaac.  And,  more- 
over, such  awfully  impressive  events  as  the 
Deluge,  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
and  the  dispersion  of  the  people  could  not 
easily  be  erased  from  the  memory. 

Again  the  vestiges  of  the  Tower  of  Babel 
and  the  altars  erected  to  God's  service  by 
the  Patriarchs  and  of  other  things  existed 
in  the  time  of  Moses. 

Closes  having  written  the  greater  part  of 


—  44  — 

the  Pentateuch  from  what  he  himself  saw 
and  heard,  could  not  have  been  deceived. 
And  being  so  well  versed  in  antiquities  and 
so  deeply  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians,  Chaldeans  and  Greeks,  could  not 
more  easily  be  deceived  concerning  the 
things  he  derived  from  monuments  and 
tradition  than  in  the  things  of  which  he 
was  a  personal  witness.  He  was  thoroughly 
capable  of  distinguishing  the  true  from  the 
false. 

Moses  did  not  Wish  to  Deceive. — 
There  is  nothing  in  his  writings  that  can 
lead  even  to  the  suspicion  of  fraud.  His 
character  and  motives  for  acting  and  writ- 
ing show  him  to  be  a  sincere  and  honest 
witness  and  widely  removed  from  all  arti- 
fice and  deceit. 

Usually  people  are  led  to  deception  and 
fraud  by  a  desire  of  their  own  gain  or  glor3^ 
Moses  never  studied  his  own  glory  or  profit. 
He  narrates  to  be  sure  the  miracles  he 
worked,  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  the  division 
of  the  sea,  the  drawing  of  w^ater  from  the 
rock,  which  things,  indeed,  reflect  glory 
upon  him  ;  but  at  the  same  time  they  indi- 
cate that  he  is  only  the  instrument  of  God. 
And  he  ingenuously  narrates  how  in  work- 
ing them  he  now  and  then  failed  in  his 
faith  due  to  God,  and  was  consequently 
punished,  among   the    penalties  being    his 


—  45  — 

debarment  from  entrance  into  the  promised 
land. 

Neither  did  he  try  to  prove  a  high  antiq- 
uity and  great  name  for  his  own  family 
nor  a  glorious  history  for  his  country. 
On  the  contrary  he  tells  that  the  Hebrews 
were  still  very  few  and  abject  when  the 
neighboring  nations,  the  Egyptians,  Chal- 
deans and  Canaanites,  were  already  very 
flourishing. 

He  mentions  the  faults  of  his  family  and 
the  people  and  refers  to  the  Testament  of 
Jacob,  who  heaps  opprobrium  on  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  from  which  lie  himself  had  arisen  ;  and 
the  seeking  of  his  own  advantage  was  so 
foreign  to  him  that  he  left  his  own  sons 
among  the  common  Levites  and  made  Aaron 
high  priest  and  Josue,  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  the  leader  of  the  people.  Every- 
where in  his  life  and  speech  he  shows  him- 
self to  be  a  man  of  the  highest  probity  and 
of  supreme  candor. 

There  is  no  indication  of  fraud  or  false- 
hood anywhere.  Eminent  piety  in  God,  a 
constant  study  of  virtue,  the  highest  pa- 
tience and  charit}^  in  bearing  the  contradic- 
tions of  an  ungrateful  people  are  everywhere 
evident.  He  displays  a  most  admirable  in- 
genuity in  narrating  his  own  and  his  fam- 
ily's errors. 

Moses  never  flattered  the  vices  of  men. 


—  46  — 

never  sought  the  favor  of  the  people,  but 
rather  imposed  upon  them  the  heaviest  laws 
and  hardest  yokes.  He  often  very  severely 
reproached  them  with  their  rebellion,  im- 
piety and  crimes.  He  never  employed  venal 
and  fraudulent  witnesses,  but  challenged 
the  public  faith  and  testimony  of  all  the 
people.  His  style  was  simple,  apt  and  full 
of  modesty.  He  has  everywhere  shown 
himself  a  candid  and  truthful  author  and 
dissipated  all  suspicion  of  fraud,  so  that  it 
is  very  apparent  that  he  did  not  aim  to  de- 
ceive. 

Besides  the  facts  described  in  the  Penta- 
teuch were  so  public,  so  intimately  coherent 
among  themselves,  so  bound  up  with  the 
lives  and  fortunes  of  the  people  of  Israel, 
that  it  was  an  utter  impossibility  for  Moses 
to  deceive  them  even  if  he  desired  to  do  so. 

All  the  Israelites  were  as  familiar  from 
tradition  and  other  monuments  with  the 
historic  matter  of  Genesis  as  Moses  him- 
self, and  it  was  of  extreme  importance  to 
them  to  preserve  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
things  recorded  in  it  because  of  their  great 
interest  to  themselves,  embracing  the  prom- 
ises made  by  God  to  the  Patriarchs.  In 
fine  all  their  hopes  were  reposed  in  it,  and 
in  it,  too,  the  reason  given  even  for  their 
submission  to  the  hardship  of  circumcision. 

Neither    could    Moses   deceive    them    in 


—  47- 

what  pertains  to  the  historic  matter  of  the 
other  books  :  The  plagues  of  Egypt ;  the 
crossing  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  the  giving  of  the 
law  on  Sinai ;  the  Manna  from  heaven  de- 
scending for  forty  years  in  the  desert  and 
feeding  the  people.  All  the  people  were 
witnesses  to  these  things.  If  these  alleged 
facts  were  but  fictions  Moses  persuaded  an 
innumerable  multitude  of  people  that  they 
saw  things  they  did  not  really  see.  He 
persuaded  the  Israelites  that  they  had 
crossed  the  Red  Sea  when  they  did  not 
cross  it,  that  they  ate  Manna  for  forty  years 
when  they  did  not  eat  it,  that  they  remained 
in  the  desert  in  which  they  never  were,  that 
they  received  the  law  from  Moses  when 
they  did  not  receive  it.  It  would  be  neces- 
sary to  admit  all  this  if  Moses  has  falsely 
written. 

Moses  imposed  hard  laws  on  the  Israel- 
ites, indeed  most  difficult  of  observance, 
claiming  God  as  their  author.  On  one  oc- 
casion he  punished  with  death  a  number  of 
people  who  neglected  a  prescription  of  the 
law.  The  Israelites  would  never  submit  to 
such  hardships  from  an  impostor.  Moses 
certainly  could  not  have  deceived  the  He- 
brews in  these  matters,  even  if  he  wished 
to  do  so. 

UncorruptEd.  —  The  Pentateuch  has 
come  down  to  us  entire  and    uncorrupted. 


—  48  — 

For  the  same  public  faith  and  tradition  of 
the  whole  Jewish  nation  that  through  all 
generations  proved  the  Pentateuch  the  gen- 
uine work  of  Moses  prove  also  that  it  has 
come  down  to  our  time  whole  and  uncor- 
rupted.  The  whole  nation  was  persuaded 
that  it  was  the  work  of  Moses,  received 
from  him  by  their  fathers,  neither  was  any- 
thing ever  added  to  nor  taken  away  by 
them  of  all  the  things  written  down  by 
Moses. 

Therefore,  if  this  public  faith  and  con- 
stant tradition  invincibly  prove  the  Mosaic 
authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  by  an  equal 
right  they  prove  its  integrity.  And  indeed 
no  possible  vestige  of  corruption  has  ever 
been  or  can  be  detected. 

If  the  Jews  wished  to  corrupt  the  Pen- 
tateuch, they  would  certainly  eliminate 
those  portions  where  they  are  upbraided 
for  their  lies,  disobedience  to  God,  crimes 
and  impieties.  But  this  clearly  has  not 
been  done  by  them.  Nor  has  the  Penta- 
teuch been  interpolated  by  the  Jew^s.  They 
would  not  dare  to  do  it.  They  held  it  in 
such  supreme  veneration  that  they  would 
not  under  any  circumstances  dare  to  trifle 
with  it.  And  even  if  they  wished  to  cor- 
rupt the  text,  they  could  not  successfully 
do  so,  for  the  Pentateuch  was  in  the  hands 
of  all,  was  read  every  seventh  year  publicly 


—  49  — 

to  the  people,  the  priests  and  Levites  had 
charge  of  it.  From  this  book  was  drawn 
the  knowledge  of  all  that  pertained  to  the 
government  of  the  Jewish  pnblic  affairs,  in 
it  is  described  the  whole  pnblic  worship. 
Books  so  pnblic  conld  not  possibly  be  ma- 
nipulated by  a  few  persons  ;  and  it  would  be 
utterly  impossible  for  all  the  multitudes  to 
consent  to  so  grave  a  thing  as  its  corrup- 
tion. 

Here  is  the  testimony  of  Josephus  :  ''  For 
we  have  not  an  innumerable  multitude  of 
books  among  us,  disagreeing  from  and  con- 
tradicting one  another  (as  the  Greeks  have), 
but  onl}^  twenty-two  books,  which  contain 
the  records  of  all  the  past  times  ;  which  are 
justly  believed  to  be  divine ;  and  of  them, 
five  belong  to  JMoses,  which  contain  his  laws, 
and  the  traditions  of  the  origin  of  mankind 
till  his  death.  And  how  firmly  we  have 
given  credit  to  those  books  of  our  own  na- 
tion is  evident  by  what  we  do  ;  for  during  so 
many  ages  as  have  already  passed,  no  one 
has  been  so  bold  as  either  to  add  anything  to 
them  or  take  anything  from  them,  or  to  make 
any  change  in  them ;  but  it  becomes  natural 
to  all  Jews,  immediatel}^  and  from  their  very 
birth,  to  esteem  those  books  to  contain  divine 
doctrines,  and  to  persist  in  them,  and,  if 
occasion  be,  willingly  to  die  for  them." 
(Flavins  Josephus  against  Apion,  i-8.) 


—  50  — 

Thus  tradition,  the  consent  of  the  Jewish 
race,  its  own  internal  evidence,  its  language, 
the  harmony  of  its  versions,  profane  authors, 
its  historic  truth  and  the  impossibility  of  its 
corruption,  all  bear  testimony  to  the  fact 
that  the  Pentateuch  is  the  work  of  the  in- 
spired pen  of  Moses. 


Chapter  III. 

INSPIRATION. 

Inspiration  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  In- 
spiratio  (in,  in,  and  spirare,  to  breathe),  and 
literally  signifies  the  act  of  breathing  in  or 
infusing.  Webster  defines  it  as:  '^  Specific- 
ally, a  supernatural  divine  influence  on  the 
prophets,  apostles,  or  sacred  writers,  by 
which  they  were  qualified  to  communicate 
moral  or  religious  truth  with  authority  ;  a 
miraculous  influence  which  qualifies  men  to 
receive  and  communicate  divine  truth.  ^ All 
Scripture  is  given  by  inspiratio7i  of  God,^  2 
Tim.  Ill,  16." 

In  connection  with  the  Holy  Scriptures 
inspiration  means  a  supernatural  influence 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  an  author,  moving 
him  to  write  and  so  directing  his  mind  while 
he  writes  that  he  cannot  err.     He  pens  only 


-51- 

tlie  things  which  God  wills  and  hence  his 
writings  nia}^  be  trul}'  said  to  be  the  word 
of  God. 

Inspiration  is  then  an  act  of  God  moving 
the  will  of  the  writer  and  impelling  him  to 
write,  directing  him  while  he  writes,  as  well 
in  the  choice  of  the  material  as  in  its  dis- 
position, so  mnch  so  that  he  pens  precisely 
what  God  wishes  him  and  nothing  more, 
even  though  other  things  may  have  been 
divinely  revealed  to  him  or  ma}^  be  most  cer- 
tainly known  to  him  from  other  sources. 

In  inspiration  the  motion  of  the  will  to 
write,  and  the  enlightening  of  the  intellect, 
by  which  both  errors  are  avoided  and  un- 
known truths  revealed  which  God  wishes  to 
disclose,  are  distinctly  required. 

B}"  this  enlightenment  the  light  of  natural 
reason  is  not  destro3^ed,  but  divine  light  is 
infused,  the  intellect  is  so  perfected  that 
without  danger  of  error  it  knows  these 
things  which  by  natural  means  came  to  its 
knowledge,  and  is  able  to  perceive  those 
things  which  were  previously  inscrutable  to 
it.  The  intellect  can  be  illuminated  by 
God  in  various  ways ;  through  revelation 
as  in  ecstasy,  through  the  imagination,  as 
often  kappened  to  the  prophets,  or  by  speech, 
or  by  external  vision,  or  by  internal  revela- 
tions in  dreams.  And  this  illumination  is 
given  to  the   writer  either  of  things  previ- 


—  52  — 

ously  unknown  to  him,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  prophets,  or  he  is  simply  directed  in  a 
choice  of  things,  and  rendered  free  from 
error  in  reciting  what  is  otherwise  known 
to  him  when  a  special  revelation  is  not  nec- 
essary. 

This  supernatural  motion  of  inspiration 
does  not  take  away  or  even  impair  the  free 
will  of  the  writer.  The  liberty  of  the  writer 
remains  under  inspiration,  as  the  prophet's 
under  the  gift  of  prophecy  and  man's  under 
efficacious  grace.  That  motion  does  not  ex- 
clude natural  media,  but  adds  to  natural 
causes  as  the  will  is  carried  or  exalted  to 
the  supernatural  order. 

Therefore  the  inspired  writer  is  not  free 
from  the  labor  which  every  writer  sustains 
in  writing:  ''And  as  to  ourselves  indeed, 
in  undertaking  this  work  of  abridging,  we 
have  taken  in  hand  no  easy  task,  yea  rather 
a  business  full  of  watching  and  sweat."  (ii 
Mach.  II,  27.)  ''  Forasmuch  as  many  have 
taken  in  hand  to  set  forth  in  order  a  narra- 
tion of  the  things  that  have  been  accom- 
plished among  us  :  according  as  they  have 
delivered  them  unto  us,  who  from  the  be- 
ginning were  eye-witnesses  and  ministers 
of  the  word :  it  seemed  good  to  me  also, 
having  diligently  attained  to  all  things  from 
the  beginning,  to  write  to  thee  in  order, 
most  excellent  Theophilus."    (Luke  I,  1-3.) 


—  53  — 

The  simple  assistance  of  the  Hol}^  Ghost 
does  not  suffice  for  inspiration  ;  something 
more  is  required,  some  excitement  or  im- 
pulse of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

There  must  be  suitable  testimony  to  show 
that  a  writer  was  inspired.  It  will  not  suf- 
fice for  the  author  himself  to  assert  it,  for 
he  may  be  deceived.  We  must  have  such 
testimony  as  cannot  possibly  lead  us  into 
error  or  be  impugned.  Such  as  the  testi- 
mony of  Christ,  His  Apostles,  the  Church, 
the  Holy  Fathers  or  the  unanimous  consent 
of  all  of  these. 

The  mere  assistance,  '^  assistentia,"  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  must  be  distinguished  from  in- 
spiration. Inspiration  is  something  posi- 
tive, whereas  this  ^'assistentia"  is  a  merely 
negative  idea.  The  ecumenical  or  general 
councils  of  the  church  have  had  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Hol}^  Ghost  to  protect  them 
from  error,  and  still  they  are  not  classed 
with  the  inspired  writings. 

A  special  impulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
write  and  also  to  write  on  particular  sub- 
jects over  and  above  protection,  is  required 
for  inspiration. 

■  A  distinction  must  be  also  made  between 
revelation  and  inspiration.  In  revelation 
God  reveals  to  a  person  truths  unknown 
before,  without  moving  that  person  to  com- 
mit the  things    thus    revealed    to    writing. 


-54  — 

The  inspired  writer  on  the  other  hand  has 
received  the  impulse  to  write  and  is  directed 
by  divine  influence  in  his  work,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  that  any  unknown  or  new 
truths  be  revealed  or  communicated  to  him. 
It  is  probable,  for  instance,  that  the  author 
of  the  book  of  Esther  required  no  revela- 
tion, as  he  could  have  known  everything 
therein  contained  from  ordinary  channels. 

Again,  revelation  need  not  necessarily  be 
committed  to  writing;  it  can  be  transmit- 
ted to  posterity  by  the  living  voice  through 
tradition  ;  inspiration,  however,  regards 
writings  altogether. 

A  work  composed  by  mere  human  indus- 
try and  afterward  declared  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  through  the  mouth  -  piece  of  the 
church  to  be  free  from  error  cannot  be  said 
to  be  inspired.  A  work  of  this  kind  can- 
not be  regarded  as  inspired,  however  per- 
fect it  may  be  and  however  free  from  error, 
because  the  Holy  Ghost  had  no  special  con- 
nection with  its  origin.  There  is  wanting 
the  impulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  write, 
and  His  supervision  v/hile  being  written, 
the  Holy  Ghost  merely  approving  it  when 
already  finished. 

According  to  some  exegetists  in  those 
historical  portions  of  the  Scriptures  where, 
the  sacred  penman  relates  facts  already 
known    to    him    either    as  'having    himself 


—  55  — 

witnessed  them  or  learned  them  from  per- 
fectly reliable  testimony,  inspiration  re- 
quires only  a  simple  superintendence  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  guard  against  mistake  in 
detailing  such  facts.  This  opinion,  how- 
ever, falls  short  of  what  is  required  for  in- 
spiration. The  claim  here  for  inspiration 
is  no  stronger  than  for  the  decrees  of  the 
general  councils  which,  although  not  con- 
sidered inspired,  still  have  the  assistance  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  to  secure  them  from  error. 
The  whole  substance  of  the  Scriptures  must 
have  been  suggested  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
even  where  the  subject  was  already  known 
to  the  author.  Where  the  matter  was  al- 
ready known  to  the  writer  a  simple  sugges- 
tion of  what  he  should  write  suffices  ;  rev- 
elation onl}^  being  necessary  when  there  is 
question  of  something  previously  unknown 
to  him. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  mode,  degree  and 
extent  of  inspiration  are  all  subjects  of  dis- 
pute. The  church  has  here  passed  no 
judgment  and  only  claims  that  the  canoni- 
cal books  are  all  and  in  ever}^  part  inspired. 

The  advocates  of  plenaiy  inspiration  as- 
sert that  ever}^  verse,  word,  syllable  and 
letter  of  the  Bible  is  the  inspired  and  the 
direct  utterance  of  the  Most  High.  The 
sacred  penmen  were  as  pieces  of  mechanism 
moved  by  the  fingers  of  God.     Their   dif- 


—  56  — 

ferent  styles  or  modes  of  expression  are  to 
be  regarded  as  only  different  tones  of  the 
same  musical  instrument  produced  by  one 
only  artist.  Accordingly  God  is  everything 
in  the  Scriptures,  and  the  writers  merely 
passive  vehicles.  The  words  of  Holy  Writ 
are  as  much  the  divine  language  as  if  God 
himself  spoke  them  in  His  proper  person. 
The  differences  found  in  the  sacred  books 
arise  from  no  individual  quality  of  the 
writer,  but  flow  from  the  diverse  aims  and 
uses  with  which  they  are  employed  by  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

Hence  it  is  contended  that  inspiration  is 
intermitting,  so  that  the  divine  afflatus 
seizes  the  soul  at  certain  moments  and  at 
others  abandons  it.  Thus  for  instance  the 
words  of  St.  Paul  ordinarily  may  not  have 
possessed  any  special  authority,  while  his 
epistles  on  the  other  hand  must  be  looked 
upon  as  inspired.  Plenary  inspiration 
claims  that  the  Scriptures  are  faultless  in 
form,  essence,  spirit  and  letter;  and  per- 
fectly divine  and  accurate  in  morals,  dogma, 
history  and  narrative. 

Again,  many  exegetists  of  very  great 
authority  contend  for  the  VERBAL  inspira- 
tion of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  claiming  that 
the  individual  words  are  the  subject  of  in- 
spiration. 

Another  opinion,  held  by  Saints  August- 


me,  Jerome  and  Alphonsus  and  said  by 
Libermann  to  be  the  common  opinion  of 
theologians,  is  that  the  very  words  have 
not  been  inspired,  bnt  only  the  sense  and 
substance,  particularly  in  the  moral  lessons 
and  in  the  historical  and  narrative  parts  of 
the  Sacred  Books.  This  is  the  safest  and 
strongest  ground  upon  which  inspiration 
can  be  maintained.  Nor  is  this  opinion  in 
any  way  derogatory  to  the  dignity  and 
authority  of  the  Bible  as  an  inspired  book. 

The  advocates  of  verbal  inspiration  en- 
counter great  difficulties  in  defending  their 
position,  which  this  opinion  at  once  removes. 

This  view  of  inspiration  would  account 
for  the  necessity,  of  which  the  sacred  writers 
were  convinced,  of  using  care  and  diligence 
in  their  work,  and  wh}^  the  author  of  the 
II  Machabees  asks  pardon  for  his  defects  in 
style.  This  view  is  also  perfectly  consist- 
ent with  the  fact  that  the  Bible  is  a  mass 
of  documents  of  different  authors  and  of 
great  antiquity  and  its  text,  owing  to  the 
great  number  and  human  frailty  of  amanu- 
enses, has  undergone  the  usual  changes  at- 
tending the  transmission  of  historical  docu- 
ments,  and  marked  by  the  usual  inequalities 
and  varieties  of  style  that  we  meet  with  in 
any  other  collection  of  ancient  literature,  and 
presents  in  many  cases  peculiar  difficulties 
and  differences  in  details,  and  scientific  and 


—  58  — 

historical  errors,  and  even  contradictions  in 
slight  and  trivial  matters  not  connected  with 
the  spirit  or  substance  of  the  general  narra- 
tive, and  this  is  particularly  applicable  to 
the  New  Testament  in  its  quotations  from 
the  Old. 

These  trivial  inaccuracies  in  no  way  in- 
validate the  substantial  veracity  of  the  sa- 
cred Scripture.  They  are  indeed  really  but 
a  most  striking  witness  to  its  truthfulness. 
They  show  that  trifling  indeed  are  the  faults 
discerned  in  this  wonderful  book  by  the 
awful  microscope  of  a  thousand  years  of 
criticism.  Such  slight  discrepancies  are 
the  mere  freedoms  which  writers,  thor- 
oughly honest,  and  animated  with  a  high 
interest  that  overlooks  trifles,  permit  them- 
selves. 

Still  they  must  be  recognized  as  human 
imperfections  that  have  crept  into  the  sa- 
cred text  and  go  to  prove  that  the  very  word 
of  the  Bible  cannot,  without  grave  difficulty, 
be  regarded  as  inspired. 

The  mere  reading  of  the  sacred  Scripture 
irresistibly  impresses  one  with  the  fact  of 
its  inspiration.  It  bears  its  own  divine 
witness  and  its  meaning  shines  forth  with 
a  divine  power  and  lustre,  such  as  invest 
no  other  book.  The  efficacy  and  sublimity 
and  heavenly  truth  of  doctrine,  niajest}^  of 
st3de,  harmony  of  parts,  wonderful  preser- 


—  59  - 

vation  and  miraculous  effects  show  impres- 
sively the  hand  of  God. 

The  Bible  is  a  message  from  God  to  Man. 
The  letter  or  word  is  nothing,  the  meaning 
is  everything.  The  divine  spirit  in  the 
Bible  makes  itself  felt,  shines  out  in  every 
page  of  it ;  and  this  is  inspiration  in  the 
highest  sense,  the  mind  of  God  meeting 
our  minds  in  the  sacred  text,  enlightening, 
guiding,  elevating,  purifying  them. 

But  if  we  admit  slight  errors  in  the 
Scripture,  why  may  it  not  all  be  imperfect 
or  erroneous?  The  sufficient  answer  is 
that  it  is  not  so,  that  judged  by  the  very 
same  critical  tests  which  detect  such  errors, 
the  Bible  remains  an  entirely  unique  and 
essentially  perfect  book. 

In  the  Bible  itself  there  are  many  pas- 
sages claiming  for  it  inspiration,  such  as 
Exod.  XVII,  14;  Jer.  XXX,  2  ;  Habac.  II; 
Daniel  XII,  4;  Dent.  XXXI,  19;  Ezech. 
XXIV;  I  Paral.  XXIX,  29;  II  Paral. 
XXVI,  22. 

The  Jews  universall}^  believed  in  the  in- 
spiration of  their  scriptures  as  is  very  evi- 
dent from  man}'  witnesses,  among  others 
Philo  and  the  Thalmud,  and  particularl}' 
from  the  testimony'  of  Josephus  :  ''  Because 
every  one  is  not  permitted  of  his  own  ac- 
cord to  be  a  writer,  nor  is  there  au}^  disa- 
greement in    what   is  written ;  they   being 


—  60  — 

only  prophets  that  have  written  the  origi- 
nal and  earliest  accounts  of  things  as  they 
learned  them  of  God  himself  by  inspira- 
tion ;  and  others  have  written  what  hath 
happened  in  their  own  times,  and  that  in  a 
very  distinct  manner  also. 

For  we  have  not  an  innumerable  multi- 
tude of  books  among  us,  disagreeing  from 
and  contradicting  one  another  (as  the  Greeks 
have),  but  onty  twenty-two  books,  which 
contain  the  records  of  all  the  past  times  ; 
wliich  are  justly  believed  to  be  divine ;  and 
of  them,  five  belong  to  Moses,  which  con- 
tain his  laws,  and  the  traditions  of  the  ori- 
gin of  mankind  till  his  death.  And  how 
firmly  we  have  given  credit  to  those  books 
of  our  nation  is  evident  by  what  we  do  ; 
for  during  so  many  ages  as  have  already 
passed,  no  one  has  been  so  bold  as  either 
to  add  anything  to  them  or  take  anything 
from  them,  or  to  make  any  change  in 
them  ;  but  it  becomes  natural  to  all  Jews, 
immediately  and  from  their  very  birth,  to 
esteem  those  books  to  contain  divine  doc- 
trines, and  to  persist  in  them,  and,  if  occa- 
sion be,  willingly  to  die  for  them."  Josephus 
against  Apion,  I,  7-8. 

Our  Lord  bears  testimony  to  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament:  Matt.  V,  18; 
John  V,  46  ;  Luke  XXIV,  27  ;  Luke  XXIV, 
44. 


—  r,i  — 

The  x\postles  have  in  many  places  praised 
the  Old  Testament  and  given  its  author- 
ship to  God:  Act.  Ill,  i8  ;  Rom.  i,  2;  11 
Pet.  I,  21  ;  Rom.  Ill,  2;  11  Tim.  Ill,  15. 

But  the  real  proof  for  the  Inspiration  of 
the  Bible  is  the  infallible  testimony  of  the 
Church.  It  can  be  clearly  shown  that  the 
Church  has  always  taught  the  Inspiration 
of  the  Scriptures. 

The  holy  fathers  bear  witness  to  the 
teaching  of  the  early  church  regarding  the 
belief  in  inspiration.  It  would  be  an  end- 
less task  to  quote  from  their  works  concern- 
ing their  faith  in  inspiration,  as  they  may 
be  literally  said  to  be  a  unit  on  this  point. 

St.  Clement  of  Rome  in  Sec.  13  of  his  first 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  St.  Polycarp  in 
his  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  ;  St.  Justin  in 
his  Apology,  St.  Irenseus  in  the  47th  Chap- 
ter of  his  second  book  against  Heresies,  St. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origin,  St.  Cyprian, 
St.  Athansius,  St.  Augustine,  Athenagoras, 
Theophilus,  Tertullian,  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  St.  Chr3^sostom,  St.  x^m- 
brose,  St.  Hilar\^,  St.  Gregory  the  Great  and 
Theodoret  speak  of  Biblical  inspiration. 

Subsequent  to  the  time  of  the  fathers  the 
church  has  manifested  her  teaching  concern- 
ing the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  by  her  gen- 
eral councils.  This  is  more  particularly 
true  of  the  decrees  of  the  fourth  session  of 


—  62  — 

the  Council  of  Trent.  And  although  she 
has  not  passed  judgment  upon  the  manner 
or  extent  of  inspiration  it  has  been  ever  her 
public  and  unanimous  sense  that  the  sacred 
Scriptures  have  been  divinely  inspired  in 
their  every  part  as  in  their  entire  contents. 

The  Church  could  not  err  in  teaching 
that  the  Scriptures  are  inspired  because  her 
founder,  Christ,  promised  her  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  that  she  could  in  no, 
way  fail  or  fall  into  error  in  her  teachings. 
She  cannot  hence  err  in  teaching  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  Bible  for  this  is  a  matter  of 
grave  importance,  indeed  a  matter  of  faith. 
Hence  the  Church  cannot  err  in  teaching 
the  inspiration  of  the  Sacred  Books. 

Nor  is  this  arguing  in  a  vicious  circle,  as 
some  critics  claim.  They  say  that  we  prove 
the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  by  the  infallible 
authority  of  the  Church,  and  the  infallibility 
of  the  Church  from  the  inspiration  of  the 
Bible.  This  is  not  true.  We  first  take  the 
New  Testament  as  a  historic  record  without 
in  the  least  attributing  to  it  inspiration. 
We  regard  the  evangelists  simply  in  their 
character  of  true  and  honest  historians. 
The  miracles  they  record  prove  the  divinity 
of  Our  Lord,  that  He  was  truly  the  Son  of 
God,  the  promised  Messiah. 

He  established  a  Church  and  promised  to 
be  with  her  all  days  even  to  the  end  of  the 


CP 


)0 


world,  and  that  the  gates  of  hell  should  not 
prevail  against  her,  in  a  word,  he  promised 
her  infallibility  in  her  teaching. 

This  infallibility  being  thus  established 
she  cannot  fail  in  her  doctrines  and  so  can- 
not err  in  teaching  the  inspiration  of  the 
Sacred  Books. 


Chapter  IV. 

SOME  DIFFICULTIES  vSOI.VED. 

Elohim  and  Jehovah. — During  the  last 
few  centuries  the  authenticity  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch has  been  often  called  into  dispute. 
Critics  have  denied  to  Moses  its  authorship 
on  one  ground  or  another.  They  were 
moved  to  this  by  various  motives.  Some 
attacked  its  authenticity  to  show  their  ex- 
egetical  acumen,  some  to  display  their 
knowledge  of  Orientalism  and  others  to 
gain  notoriety  by  connecting  their  name 
with  a  work  so  immortal  and  imperishable. 

It  would  be  an  absolute  miracle  to  have 
the  authenticity  of  a  work  of  its  momen- 
tous interest  pass  unchallenged. 

The  authenticity  of  every  great  literary 
work  has  been  at  one  time  or  another  dis- 
puted. Shakespeare  is  but  a  few  hundred 
years  dead,  and  his  very  existence  has  been 


—  64- 

denied.  His  great  work  has  been  credited 
to  many  authors.  One  critic,  even,  has 
asserted  that  he  had  discovered  a  cipher  in 
the  work  itself,  giving  its  authorship  to 
Francis  Bacon. 

In  the  earlier  chapters  of  Genesis  God  is 
called  Elohim  (Almighty),  and  in  the  later, 
Jehovah  (Everlasting).  From  this  it  is  de- 
clared by  some  critics  that  the  Pentateuch 
was  compiled  by  an  author  much  later  than 
Moses,  principally  from  two  very  ancient 
documents  called  the  Elohistic  and  Jeho- 
'vistic-  The  simple  fact  that  God  was  called 
by  different  names  in  different  parts  of  the 
Pentateuch  would  not  militate  against  its 
Mosaic  authenticity.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  same  author  could  not  have  called 
God  by  different  names  in  different  places 
in  his  work.  Moses,  in  composing  his 
work,  might  have  employed  some  very  an- 
cient manuscripts.  In  these  God  might 
have  received  different  appellations  by  the 
different  authors,  and  Moses  might  have 
retained  through  courtesy  the  names  used 
by  these  predecessors. 

To-day  we  give  God  a  variety  of  names, 
the  Almighty,  Divine  Providence,  Infinite 
Goodness  and  many  others. 

Nor  is  Elohim  confined  entirely  to  the 
first  part  of  Genesis  and  Jehovah  to  the  last, 
the  terms  are  frequently  interchanged  ;  in 


—  65  — 

the  account  of  the  Deluge  Jehovah  is  used 
in  the  eighth  verse  of  the  sixth  chapter, 
and  in  the  first  and  fifth  verses  of  the  sev- 
enth chapter.  Both  names  are  used  in  the 
sixteenth  verse  of  the  seventh  chapter. 
Also  in  the  narrative  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Isaac,  Elohim  is  used  first  and  Jehovah 
shortly  after.  The  names  are  also  used  al- 
ternately in  the  history  of  Joseph  and  in 
the  exhortation  of  Moses  to  the  people  in 
Deuteronomy. 

EsDRAS.  —  Many  Rationalists  give  the 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  to  Esdras, 
claiming  that  he  compiled  it  from  the 
Elohistic  and  Jehovistic  documents  already 
mentioned.  The  Elohistic  document  is 
said  to  come  down  from  a  ver}^  ancient  au- 
thor, who  gave  to  God  the  appellation  of 
Elohim  and  the  Jehovistic  from  one  who 
gave  Him  the  name  of  Jehovah. 

But  if  Esdras  had  himself  compiled  this 
work,  which  contains  so  many  rites  and  in- 
stitutions, including  their  whole  life,  as  well 
civil  as  domestic,  so  intimately  connected 
with  religion,  and  which  also  contains  so 
many  reproaches  and  threats  and  which  im- 
posed such  a  hard  yoke  upon  them,  how 
could  he  then  for  the  first  time  persuade 
the  Jews  to  accept  it  all  upon  his  sole  as- 
sertion if  never  heard  of  before? 

If  Esdras  composed  these  books,  it  cer- 

5 


—  66  — 

tainly  was  after  the  return  of  the  Israelites 
from  captivity ;  but  long  before  this  time 
the  Jews  had  the  Pentateuch,  for  the  priests 
and  levites  were  already  established  in  their 
office.  Besides  Esdras  himself  testifies  to 
a  prior  existence  of  the  book  of  Moses, 
(i  Esdr.  Ill,  2  ;   I  Esdr.  VI,  i8.) 

Long  before  the  captivity,  Jeremiah  al- 
ludes to  the  Law  of  Moses,  under  which 
name  the  Pentateuch  is  always  designated 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  moreover,  existed  long  previ- 
ously, so  that  Esdras  could  not  have  com- 
posed the  Pentateuch  from  Elohistic  and 
Jehovistic  documents. 

The  spirit,  tone,  language,  and  all  those 
smaller  peculiarities  of  the  Pentateuch 
already  mentioned  prove  the  utter  improba- 
bility of  the  authorship  of  Esdras ;  and 
besides  he  never  could  have  been  able  to 
avoid  so  skillfully  his  own  individual  man- 
ner and  style,  as  it  appears  in  his  own  book. 

Helcias. — Other  Rationalists  place  the 
composition  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  time 
of  King  Josias,  and  endeavor  to  establish 
this  opinion  from  things  narrated  in  the 
books  of  Kings  and  Paralipomenon,  that  a 
volume  of  the  Law  was  found  in  the  temple 
by  the  high  priest  Helcias.  It  was  desired, 
they  say,  to  move  the  King  and  people  to 
penance  by  the  reading  of  this  book,  which 


—  67  — 

could  not  have  been  known  before,  they 
assert,  because  it  did  not  previously  exist. 
But  just  the  very  contrary  appears  from  the 
narration  itself.  In  the  i8th  year  of  the 
reign  of  Josias,  when  builders  were  restoring 
portions  of  the  temple,  Helcias  the  high- 
priest  found  a  book  of  the  Law  in  the  House 
of  the  Lord,  and  said  to  the  scribe  Saphan, 
^*  I  have  found  a  book  of  the  Law  in  the 
House  of  the  Lord,"  and  gave  it  to  liim. 
He  took  the  volume  to  the  King  and  related 
the  circumstance  to  him.  The  King  read 
it  and  was  moved  to  penance  and  he  brought 
together  in  the  temple  the  priests,  levites 
and  all  the  people  and  had  the  volume  read 
to  them.  It  had  a  great  effect  upon  all, 
moved  them  to  observe  the  precepts  and 
and  ceremonies  contained  in  the  book  and 
particularly  caused  them  to  renounce  idola- 
try. "And  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  King 
Josias,  the  King  sent  Saphan,  the  son  of 
Aslia,  the  son  of  j\Iessulam,  the  scribe  of 
the  temple  of  the  Lord,  saying  to  him  :  Go 
to  Helcias,  the  high-priest.  .  .  .  And  Hel- 
cias the  high-priest  said  to  Saphan,  the 
scribe :  I  have  found  the  book  of  the  Law 
in  the  house  of  the  Lord  :  and  Helcias  gave 
the  book  to  Saphan,  and  he  read  it.  And 
Saphan  the  scribe  came  to  the  King,  and 
brought  him  word  again  concerning  what 
he  had  commanded.   .  .   .  And  Saphan,  the 


—  68  — 

scribe,  told  tlie  King,  saying:  Helcias  the 
priest  hatli  delivered  to  me  a  book.  And 
when  Saphan  had  read  it  before  the  King, 
and  the  King  had  heard  the  words  of  the 
book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord,  he  rent  his 
garments.  And  he  commanded  Helcias  the 
priest,  and  Ahicam,  the  son  of  Saphan,  and 
Achobor,  the  son  of  Micha,  and  Saphan  the 
scribe,  and  Asaia  the  King's  servant,  say- 
ing :  Go  and  consult  the  Lord  for  me,  and 
for  the  people,  and  for  all  Jnda,  concerning 
the  words  of  this  book,  which  is  found :  for 
the  great  wrath  of  the  Lord  is  kindled 
against  us,  because  our  fathers  have  not 
hearkened  to  the  words  of  this  book,  to  do 
all  that  is  written  for  us."  (IV  Kings  XXII. 
3,  8,  9,  lo,  II,  12,  13,  14.) 

This  narrative  does  not  in  any  way  im- 
pugn the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. It  does  not  presume  to  say  that 
Helcias  composed,  but  found  the  book,  so 
that,  certainly,  it  must  have  existed  previ- 
ously. A  new  book  just  then  found  and 
heard  of  for  the  first  time  could  not  have 
moved  the  people  in  this  manner.  This 
effect  on  the  people  proves  the  genuineness 
of  the  book,  that  it  must  have  had  the  au- 
thority of  Moses  and  so  of  God  himself 
to  be  able  to  thus  move  the  people  from 
idolatry. 

Before  the  time  of  Josias  all  things  con- 


-69  — 

tained  in  the  Pentateuch  were  most  perfect- 
ly known.  Frequent  references  being  made 
in  the  Prophets,  Kings,  Judges  and  Josue 
to  the  laws,  facts  and  miracles  recorded  in 
the  Pentateuch. 

That  Helcias  should  have  been  the  real 
author  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  these  Rational- 
ists assert,  would  impl}^  a  complicity  in 
forging  the  book,  not  only  on  the  part  of 
Jeremiah,  the  prophetess  Holda,  and  the 
elders,  but  almost  of  the  whole  people, 
among  whom,  on  the  contrary,  there  certain- 
ly seems  to  have  been  living  a  very  vivid 
tradition  of  the  former  existence  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Moreover,  had  it  been  first 
written  in  those  days,  there  would  certainly 
have  been  introduced  into  it  a  pedigree  and 
origin  of  the  House  of  David,  differing 
from  the  incestuous  one  given  in  Genesis. 
Deuteronomy  would  have  changed  its  lan- 
guage considerably  about  Ro3\alt3^ ;  and 
Joseph's  would  not  have  stood  out  so  promi- 
nently as  a  favored  tribe. 

Moses  in  the  Pentateuch  speaks  of  him- 
self in  the  third  person,  but  this  is  no  un- 
usual thing  for  an  author  writing  about 
events  of  w^hich  he  himself  formed  the  chief 
part.  Caesar,  Xenophon,  Esdras,  IMathew, 
John  and  Josephus  have  done  the  same  thing. 

That  Moses  called  himself  the  meekest  of 
men  was  not  in  a  spirit  of  boasting,  bat  to 


—  70  — 

show  that  the  chastisements  which  he  in- 
flicted were  not  prompted  by  anger  or  re- 
venge, but  by  justice  and  God's  command, 
and  if  he  sometimes  mentions  his  virtues  he 
does  not  forget  to  also  name  his  faults. 

At  the  close  of  the  Pentateuch  reference 
is  made  to  the  death  of  Moses,  but  this  part 
is  taken  from  the  beginning  of  the  book  of 
Josue,  with  which  it  was  formerly  joined. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  portion  of  Deuter- 
onomy was  written  after  the  Israelites 
reached  Canaan,  from  the  use  of  a  preposi- 
tion which  seems  to  signify  be^^ond  :  ''  These 
are  the  words  which  Moses  spoke  to  all 
Israel  beyond  the  Jordan."  The  Hebrew 
preposition  used  in  the  text  can  be  rendered 
by  either  beyond  or  on  this  side  (transvel 
citra),  and  evidently  regards  the  bank  of  the 
Jordan  and  has  no  reference  whatever  to 
Canaan. 

Apparently  there  is  a  mistake  in  chronol- 
ogy between  Esau  and  Saul,  but  this  arises 
from  the  mention  of  the  leaders  of  tribes 
who  flourished  simultaneously  and  not  suc- 
cessively. 

Many  names  of  places  are  found  in  the 
Pentateuch,  which  are  said  to  have  been 
given  to  them  only  long  after  the  time  of 
Moses.  The  mention  of  the  city  of  Dan, 
so  called  only  after  the  conquest  b}^  that 
tribe,  and  the  enumeration  of  towns  built 


—  71  — 

or  enlarged  by  the  tribes  of  Gad  and 
Reuben,  which  could  not  have  happened  in 
the  time  of  Moses,  are  cited  particularly  as 
instances  of  this. 

These  towns  or  villages  may  have  all  ex- 
isted in  the  time  of  Moses,  but  under  other 
names,  and  the  commentators  and  tran- 
scribers for  the  sake  of  clearness  have  used 
and  inserted  the  names  under  which  these 
places  were  known  in  their  own  day. 

The  author  speaks  of  the  institution  of 
the  Levites  and  uses  the  expression  "up  to 
this  day,"  and  others  similar,  "  Now  the 
Canaanite  was  at  that  time  in  the  land  ;  " 
"  and  at  that  time  the  Canaanite  and  Plier- 
ezite  dwelled  in  that  country."  Moses 
could  as  well  speak  in  that  way  as  St. 
Matthew  could  say  (XXVII,  8,)  "  For  this 
cause  that  field  was  called  Haceldama,  that 
is,  the  field  of  blood,  even  to  this  day." 

There  are  some  fifty  passages  contained 
in  the  Pentateuch,  which  would  appear  to 
place  the  writer  later  than  the  time  of 
Moses.  These  are,  however,  evidently 
the  work  of  annotators  and  transcribers. 
Things  have  crept  into  the  original  text  in 
this  way  by  interpolation.  Many  things 
ma}^  have  been  added  b}'  way  of  commentary, 
note  or  explanation,  first  written  on  the 
margin  and  afterwards  embodied  and  incor- 
porated into  the  text.      This  can   be    con- 


ceded  without  injur}^  to  the  real  substantial 
Mosaic  authenticity.  These  notes  have 
been  added  from  time  to  time  b}^  annota- 
tors  for  the  sake  of  clearness  and  particu- 
larly in  regard  to  obsolete  words  or  old 
towns  with  new  names.  This  has  fre- 
quently happened  in  regard  to  the  works 
of  the  great  profane  authors  without  in  the 
least  thereby  injuring  their  title  to  authen- 
ticity, neither  should  it  be  regarded  as  in 
any  way  detrimental  to  the  Mosaic  author- 
ship of  the  Pentateuch. 

The  Pentateuch  was  composed  by  Moses 
in  the  nature  of  a  diar^^  He  dotted  down 
things  as  they  struck  him  at  different 
times.  He  may  not  have  alwa3^s  strictly  re- 
garded the  chronological  order  of  events, 
and  may  have  dotted  down  the  same  things 
at  different  times  and  under  different  cir- 
cumstances, in  different  words  and  phrase- 
ology, and  so  have  made  repetitions. 

Such  is  the  character  of  a  diar3^  The 
finding  of  repetitions  in  the  Pentateuch  does 
not  argue  different  authors  any  more  than 
the  repetition  of  the  account  of  the  conver- 
sion of  St.  Paul  argues  several  authors  for 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

That  the  style  is  at  one  time  concise  and 
at  another  profuse,  and  the  language  of  un- 
equal flow  is  not  against  the  authorship  of 
Moses.    The  Pentateuch  appears  to  be  made 


—  73  - 

up  from  fragments,  because  Moses  consulted 
different  sources  for  his  information,  partic- 
ularly in  writing  Genesis.  Diversity  of 
style  was  caused  by  diversity  of  times  and 
things.  His  style  in  the  prime  of  manhood 
must  have  naturally  differed  from  that  of 
his  old  age.  He  must  have  also  used  one 
style  in  describing  laws  and  another  in  ex- 
horting and  threatening  the  people. 

That  the  numbers  of  the  people  and  the 
cattle  do  not 'in  places  seem  to  conform  to 
the  laws  of  natural  increase  or  even  to  what 
the  geometrical  limitations  demanded,  and 
other  seeming  contradictions  that  show  them- 
selves in  the  Pentateuch,  are  merely  appar- 
ent difficulties,  as  can  be  easily  shown. 

Dr.  Davidson  gives  as  a  reason  that  Moses 
did  not  write  the  Pentateuch,  that  he  was 
emphatically  a  law-giver  and  an  actor,  and 
not  a  historian.  Csesar  was  a  legislator  and 
actor  and  still  he  wrote  his  Commentaries. 
Grant  was  an  actor  and  emphatically  no 
talker  or  writer,  and  3^et  he  has  given  us 
his  Memoirs. 

Moses  may  not  have  intended  to  write  a 
history  of  his  times,  but  the  matter  of  the 
Pentateuch  was  furnished  by  his  pen,  and 
no  vicissitude  of  time  or  effort  of  critic  will 
take  from  its  character  as  the  Diary  of 
Moses. 

Some  of  the  most  serious  difficulties  urged 


—  74  — 

against  the  Pentateuch,  and  indeed  the  Bible, 
are  proposed  by  the  votaries  of  what  is 
known  as  the  "  Higher  Criticism."  This  is 
the  latest  and  most  insidious  method  of 
criticism  and  hence  the  following  chapter 
will  be  devoted  to  its  consideration. 


Chapter  V. 

THE  HIGHER  CRITICISM. 

Three  different  methods  of  criticism  have 
been  used  to  combat  the  inspiration  of  the 
Bible  and  eliminate  the  supernatural  from 
its  pages.  The  first  method  was  to  explain 
aw^a}^  the  miracles  of  the  Scripture  in  a 
natural  manner ;  to  reduce  the  seemingly 
miraculous  to  the  merely  marvelous ;  and 
the  predictions  of  the  inspired  prophets  to 
shrewd  but  vague  forecastings  on  a  par 
value  with  the  prognostications  of  our  own 
weather  prophets.  In  fact,  this  method 
undertakes  to  furnish  a  human  key  for  the 
solution  of  all  Biblical  m3^steries. 

The  Star  of  Bethlehem  w^as  for  instance 
a  natural  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 
The  dividing  of  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea 
w^as  occasioned  opportunely  and  without  an}/ 
supernatural  intervention  b}^  the  blowing  of 
a  high  wind  and  the  restoring  to  their  place 


-75- 

of   the  waters  that   engulfed  Pharoah  and 
his  cohorts  by  the  ceasing  of  the  storm. 

The  p'rophets  were  merel}^  very  sagacious 
statesmen,  who  foretold  in  highly  poetical 
language  future  events  from  their  keen  ob- 
servations of  the  course  of  things  in  the 
past. 

The  German  Rationalists,  represented  b\- 
Paulus  and  Eichhorn,  adopted  this  method. 
The  genuineness  of  the  books  of  the  Bible 
was  not  in  the  least  assailed,  but  their  in- 
spiration and  supernatural  character  were 
completely  impugned. 

The  second  method  of  criticism  is  to  denv 
absolutely  the  veracity  and  good  faith  of 
the  writers  of  the  sacred  books.  The  critics 
of  this  class  assert  that  the  Bible  miracles 
were  impositions  and  the  prophets  conscious 
frauds.  The}^  scoff  at  the  supernatural,  de- 
clare all  religion  a  fraud  and  designate  the 
faithful  believers  as  the  dupes  of  a  selfish, 
designing  and  interested  priesthood.  Vol- 
taire, Thomas  Paine  and  Robert  Ingersoll 
are  the  color-bearers  of  this  critical  school. 
These  are  the  most  shallow  of  all  the  crit- 
ics. Their  knowledge  of  the  Bible  and  of 
science  is  both  superficial  and  limited. 
Their  weapons  are  raillery,  chicanery  and 
sneering. 

The  third  method  is  that  of  the  so-called 
higher  criticism,  which  denies  the  genuine- 


-76— 

ness  of  the  sacred  books.  This  system  ac- 
knowledges the  honesty  and  sincerity  of  the 
writers  of  the  sacred  volumes  and  confesses 
that  they  meant  to  affirm  that  miracles 
were  really  performed  and  prophecies  ut- 
tered. These  critics  claim,  however,  that  a 
great  length  of  time  had  elapsed  between 
the  recording  of  the  miracles  and  their 
alleged  occurrence.  That  they  are  not  at- 
tested by  contemporaries  and  eye-witnesses, 
but  by  persons  living  long  subsequently, 
and  that  the  prophecies  were  not  committed 
to  writing  until  after  their  fulfillment. 
Hence  legends  and  fictions  from  long  repe- 
tition had  been  formally  received  as  absolute 
truths  and  the  writers  simply  transmitted 
the  mistaken  belief  of  their  own  times. 

The  real  aim  of  this  criticism  is  to  show 
that  the  age  and  authorship  ascribed  to  the 
sacred  volumes  are  not  correct  and  must  be 
referred  to  an  origin  altogether  different 
from  that  heretofore  claimed  for  them. 

Wellhausen,  Kuenen  and  Duhm  may  be 
cited  as  fair  representatives  of  this  miodern 
school  of  criticism.  According  to  professor 
Julius  Wellhausen  the  Pentateuch  or  Hexa- 
teuch,  as  he  prefers  to  call  it,  as  embracing 
the  Book  of  Josue,  in  its  present  form,  is 
the  result  of  a  post-exilic  sacerdotal  move- 
ment tending  to  substitute  what  he  calls 
the  "priestly  code"  for  the  primitive  insti- 


—  77  — 

tution,  with  tlie  object  of  offering  under 
the  prestige  of  antiquity  an  effectual  re- 
sistance to  national  disintegration.  The 
theory  is  based  upon  an  analysis  of  the 
Pentateuch  legislation,  in  which  he  finds 
the  more  distinctive  sacerdotal  enactments 
attributed  to  Moses  to  be  more  recent,  both 
in  language  and  character,  than  the  rest  of 
the  legislation,  and  in  some  cases  incom- 
patible with  it. 

That  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch  are  of 
a  heterogeneous  character;  are  in  part  re- 
productions of  older  documents  ;  that  there 
would  seem  to  have  been  an  interest  in- 
volved in,  and  an  opportunity^  given  for, 
their  late  invention  ;  do  but  constitute  at 
most  a  suspicion  based  upon  a  probability, 
which  those  who  have  grounds  of  credence 
distinct  from  the  intrinsic  character  of  the 
document  may  be  permitted  to  put  aside. 

The  great  thing  about  Wellhausen  is  his 
imagination.  He  has  a  wonderfully  exuber- 
ant fancy  which  has  enabled  him  to  pro- 
duce histories  devoid  absolutel}'  of  a  single 
fact  that  ever  positively  existed. 

The  authorship  of  Moses  is  impugned 
because  he  speaks  of  himself  in  the  third 
person.  But  Isaiah  (VII,  3),  Jeremiah 
(XXXVI,  4),  Hosea  (i,  2),  and  the  Evan- 
gelist John  (XIII,  23),  and  Matthew  (IX,  9) 
do  the  very  same  thing  without  the  slightest 


—  78  — 

suspicion  of  injuring  tliereb}^  the  genuine- 
ness of  their  authorship. 

The  authorship  of  Moses  is  also  called  in 
question  because  in  (Num.  XII,  3)  he  says 
of  himself:  "  For  Moses  was  a  man  exceed- 
ing meek  above  all  men  that  dwelt  upon 
earth."  Moses  here  draws  attention  to  his 
great  meekness  from  no  spirit  of  boastful- 
ness  or  vain-glory,  but  with  the  same 
impartiality  with  which  he  names  his  draw- 
backs, such  as  the  disobedience  which  ex- 
cluded him  from  the  Promised  Land  and 
his  neglect  to  circumcise  his  child. 

In  a  like  spirit  St.  Paul  says  of  himself: 
''I  labored  more  abundantly  than  they  all,'' 
and  St.  John  styles  himself:  "  The  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved." 

It  is  claimed  that  Deuteronomy  was  writ- 
ten in  the  reign  of  Josiah.or  very  shortly 
before.  Wellhausen  says  (Brit.  Ency.  Vol. 
XVIII,  page  508):  ''That  the  author  of 
Deuteronomy  had  the  Jehovistic  work  before 
him  is  also  admitted;  and  it  is  prett}^  w^ell 
agreed  that  the  latter  is  referred,  alike  by 
the  character  of  its  language  and  the  circle 
of  its  ideas  and  by  express  references  (Gen. 
XII,  6,  XXXVI,  31,  XXXIV,  10;  Num. 
XXII  ;  Dent.  XXXIV,  10),  to  the  golden 
age  of  Hebrew  Literature,  the  same  which 
has  given  us  the  finest  parts  of  the  books  of 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  and  the  oldest 


—  79  — 

extant  prophetical  writings, — the  age  of  the 
kings  and  prophets,  before  the  dissohition  of 
the  sister  states  of  Israel  and  Judah." 

How  under  any  possible  shadow  of  veri- 
similitude can  Deuteronomy  be  referred  to 
the  age  of  Josiah  when  it  is  filled  with  in- 
junctions to  exterminate  the  Canaanites 
(XX,  16-18)  and  the  Amalekites  (XXV, 
17-19)  who  had  ages  before  disappeared? 

Laws  are  not  framed  to  regulate  a  state 
of  things  vvdiich  have  long  passed  away,  and 
can  never  possibly  be  revived.  At  the  period 
in  which  the  code  of  Deuteronomy  is  claimed 
to  have  been  composed,  about  the  time  of 
Josiah,  the  Jews  were  hard  pressed  to  repel 
the  incursions  of  Eg3^pt  and  Bab^don,  and 
it  certainly  would  be  utterly  absurd  to  en- 
act a  law  contemplating  foreign  conquests 
as  in  (Dent.  XX,  10-15);  ^^^^  another 
favoring  Edom  (Dent.  XXIII,  y-8)  against 
Moab  and  Amnion  (XXIII,  3-4)  would 
precisely  suit  the  time  of  Moses,  but  not 
that  of  the  Kings. 

About  the  time  of  Josiah  the  prophets 
were  struggling  hard  to  dissuade  the  people 
from  forming  any  association  with  the  Egyp- 
tians (Isai.  XXX,  I,  XXXI,  i  ;  Jer.  II.  18), 
whereas  in  (Dent.  XXIII,  7)  there  is "  a 
strong  command  given  to  them  to  maintain 
friendly  relations  with  the  Egyptians. 

The  references  in  Deuteronomy  to  Egypt 


—  80  — 

imply  a  recent  residence  in  it,  the  Egyptian 
bondage  and  deliverance  from  it  are  cited 
as  motives  of  gratitude  to  the  Lord,  (Deut. 
XIII,  5  ;  XX,  I ;  Lev.  XIX,  36 ;  XXVI,  13 ; 
Num.  XV,  41  ;  Deut.  VII,  15  ;  XXVIII,  60.) 

If  anything  could  serve  to  show  the  su- 
preme absurdity  of  referring  the  Deutero- 
nomic  code  to  the  time  of  Josiah  it  is  that 
while  (Deut.  XVII,  14)  contemplating  the 
possible  selection  of  a  king  in  future,  the 
code  makes  not  the  slightest  allusion  to  an 
actual  kingly  government,  but  places  the 
supreme  executive  authority  in  a  judge  and 
the  priesthood  (Deut.  XVII,  8-12;  XIX, 
17);  declaring  that  the  king  must  be  a  na- 
tive and  not  a  foreigner  (Deut.  XVII,  15), 
when  already  for  ages  before  Josiah's  time 
there  had  been  a  long  line  of  kings,  with 
the  succession  firmly  fixed  in  the  family  of 
David. 

Deuteronomy  also  demands  a  promise 
from  the  future  king  before  he  can  be 
selected  that  he  will  not  ''  cause  the  people 
to  return  to  Egypt,"  (Deut.  XVII,  16)  ;  as 
they  appeared  desirous  to  do  in  the  days  of 
Moses  on  every  fresh  grievance  (Num.  XIV, 
4),  but  which  they  never  thought  of  doing 
after  their  possession  of  Canaan. 

Wellhausen,  to  show  that  the  Pentateuch 
is  a  tissue  of  broken  fragments  demanding 
many  authors,  claims  that  the  first  legisla- 


—  81  — 

tion,  as  lie  calls  it,  presupposes  a  plurality 
of  sanctuaries,  and  that  Deuterononi}^,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  a  law  for  the  abolition 
of  local  sanctuaries,  as  they  are  recognized 
by  the  first  legislation.  To  show  that  the 
altars  are  many,  and  not  one,  he  cites  Exod. 
XX,  24,  26 :  ''  You  shall  make  an  altar  of 
earth  unto  me,  and  you  shall  offer  upon  it 
your  holocausts  and  peace-offerings  ;  your 
sheep  and  oxen,  in  every  place  where  the 
memory  of  my  name  shall  be  :  I  will  come 
to  thee  and  will  bless  thee,  etc."  This, 
Wellhausen  maintains,  is  in  direct  contra- 
diction to  Deut.  XII,  2,3:  ^'  Destroy  all  the 
places,  in  which  the  nations  that  you  shall 
possess,  worshipped  their  gods,  upon  high 
mountains,  and  hills,  and  under  every  shady 
tree.  Overthrow  their  altars,  and  break 
down  their  statues,  burn  their  groves  with 
fire,  and  break  their  idols  in  pieces :  destroy 
their  names  out  of  those  places."  Reclaims 
that  this  latter  must  have  been  written  in 
the  time  of  Josiah,  who  wished  to  abolish 
all  the  ancient  sanctuaries  and  establish  at 
Jerusalem  a  single  one  for  the  unification 
and  centralization  of  Israel. 

Wellhausen  puts  an  entirely  wrong  con- 
struction on  this  second  passage.  It  refers 
to  heathenish  altars  and  not  to  Jewish  sanc- 
tuaries. 

The  first  passage  is  the  primary  law  of  the 

6 


—  82—     ' 

altar  of  Israel,  given  at  Sinai,  before  even 
the  tabernacle  was  built.  It  directs  the  erec- 
tion of  an  altar  of  stone  or  earth  in  every 
place  where  God  should  record  his  name 
or  manifest  himself,  but  not  at  all  where- 
ever  people  might  select  to  erect  such  an 
altar.  This  was  the  motive  for  the  erection 
of  an  altar  at  Sinai  and  other  future  places 
where  God  had  conspicuously  made  a  man- 
ifestation of  His  being.  The  passage  realty 
refers  to  altars  successively  erected  at  dif- 
ferent places  in  the  Wilderness,  and  not 
co-existing  sanctuaries  in  Canaan.  No 
sanction  is  here  given  for  a  multiplicity  of 
co-existing  altars.  Abraham,  Isaac  and 
Jacob  in  patriarchal  days  and  in  the  Holy 
Land  itself,  built  different  altars  and  of- 
fered sacrifice  upon  them,  but  they  were 
erected  in  their  several  abodes  successive^ 
but  not  simultaneously.  They  were  not 
rival  but  successive  altars. 

Wellhausen  pretends  to  find  a  serious 
discrepancy  between  Deuteronomy  and  the 
Levitical  Law  in  regard  to  the  priesthood  ; 
in  this  that  according  to  the  former  all 
Levites  are  priests,  and  have  an  equal  right 
to  perform  priestly  functions  and  share 
the  priestly  revenues,  while  in  the  latter 
none  are  priests  but  Aaron  and  his  sons, 
and  the  Levites  are  servants  or  attendants 
upon  the  priests. 


—  83  — 

The  abolition  of  the  local  shrines  in  favor 
of  Jerusalem,  Wellhausen  argues,  necessarily 
involved  the  deposition  of  the  provincial 
priesthood  in  favor  of  the  sons  of  Zaodoak 
in  the  temple  of  Solomon.  The  law  of 
Deuteronomy  tries  to  avoid  this  consequence 
by  conceding  the  privilege  of  offering  sac- 
rifices at  Jerusalem  to  the  Levites  from 
other  places ;  Levites  in  Deuteronomy  is 
the  general  name  for  priests  whose  right  to 
officiate  is  hereditar3^  But  this  privilege 
w^as  never  realized,  no  doubt  because  the 
sons  of  Zaodoak  opposed  it.  The  latter, 
therefore,  were  now  the  only  real  priests, 
and  the  priests  of  the  high  places  lost  their 
office  with  the  destruction  of  their  altars  ; 
for  the  loss  of  their  sacrificial  dues  they  re- 
ceived a  sort  of  eleemosynary  compensation 
from  their  aristocratic  brethren  (2  Kings 
XXIII,  9). 

The  displacing  of  the  provincial  priests, 
though  practically  almost  inevitable,  went 
against  the  law  of  Deuteronomy  ;  but  an 
argument  to  justify  it  was  supplied  by 
Ezekiel  (Ezek.  XLIV).  The  other  Levites, 
he  says,  forfeited  their  priesthood  b}"  abus- 
ing it  in  the  service  of  the  high  places  ;  and 
for  this  they  shall  be  degraded  to  be  mere 
servants  of  the  Levites  of  Jerusalem,  who 
have  not  been  guilty  of  the  offense  of  doing 


—  84- 

sacrifice  to  provincial  shrines,  and  tlius 
alone  deserve  to  remain  priests. 

If  we  start  from  Deuteronomy,  where  all 
Levites  have  equal  priestly  rights,  this  ar- 
gument and  ordinance  are  plain  enough  but 
it  is  utterly  impossible  to  understand  them 
if  the  Priestly  Code  is  taken  as  already  ex- 
isting. 

Ezekiel  views  the  priesthood  as  originally 
the  right  of  all  Levites,  while  by  the  Priest- 
ly Code  a  Levite  who  claims  this  right  is 
guilty  of  baseless  and  wicked  presumption, 
such  as  once  cost  the  lives  of  all  the  com- 
pany of  Korah. 

Ezekiel's  ideas  and  aims  are  entirely  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  Priestly  Code,  and 
yet  he  plainly  does  not  know  the  Code 
itself.  This  can  only  mean  that  in  his  day 
it  did  not  exist,  and  that  his  ordinances 
formed  one  of  the  steps  that  prepared  the 
way  for  it. 

In  answer  to  all  this  it  must  be  under- 
stood as  a  paramount  fact  that  Deuterono- 
my is  a  body  of  laws  incomplete  in  itself. 
Deuteronomy  really  follows,  is  attached  to 
and  co-ordinated  wnth  the  legislation  of  the 
preceding  books  of  the  Pentateuch.  The 
mutual  relations  between  priests  and  Le- 
vites and  their  special  functions  being  al- 
ready specified  in  the  Levitical  Law  it  was 
entirely    unnecessary   to    repeat    the    same 


—  S5  — 

things  in  Deuteronomy.  All  tliat  specially 
relates  to  the  ministers  of  religion  and  the 
ceremonies  of  worship  finds  its  place  in  the 
Levitical  Law  rather  than  in  Deuteronomy. 
Thus  in  (Dent.  XXIV,  8,  9)  there  is  direct 
allusion  to  the  Law  of  Leprosy  previously 
given  in  (Lev.  XIII,  XIV,)  (Dent.  X.  8, 
9  ;  and  XVIII,  i,  2)  point  out  duties  already 
assigned  and  support  allowed  to  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  with  reference  to  (Num.  XVIII.  20), 
which  establishes  the  relative  status  of 
priests  and  Levites. 

The  rescinding  of  the  restriction  demand- 
ing that  every  animal  slain  for  food  should 
be  presented  at  the  Sanctuary  mentioned  in 
(Dent.  XII,  15),  plainly  alludes  to  the  law 
(Lev.  XVII,  3)  which  could  only  have  been 
enacted  in  the  Wilderness  as  a  preservative 
against  idolatr}^  and  was  altogether  imprac- 
ticable in  Canaan.  This  law  was  then 
formally  abrogated  before  the  entrance  of 
the  Israelites  into  the  promised  land. 

Deut.  XXXIII,  8-1 1,  plainly  and  une- 
quivocally alludes  to  the  preceding  history 
and  laws.  Deuteronomy  thus  by  its  own 
express  account  alludes  only  briefly  and 
summarily  to  the  existence  and  binding  au- 
thority of  a  more  detailed  antecedent  legis- 
lation. 

It  is  claimed  further  that  Deuteronomy 
does    not  distinguish    between    priest    and 


*'-«^. 


u 


—  86  — 

Levite.  That  is  tlie  baldest  assertion.  The 
only  seeming  fonndation  for  it  is  the  words 
of  (Deut.  XVIII,  i):  "The  priests  and 
Levites,  and  all  that  are  of  the  same  tribe, 
shall  have  no  part,  nor  inheritance  with  the 
rest  of  Israel,  because  they  shall  eat  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Lord,  and  his  oblations." 

The  true  significance  of  these  words  is 
to  affirm  that  both  the  priests  and  the  whole 
tribe  to  which  they  belong  are  without  in- 
heritance. Deut.  XVIII,  3-5  says :  ''  This 
shall  be  the  priest's  due  from  the  people, 
and  from  them  that  offer  victims :  whether 
they  sacrifice  an  ox,  or  a  sheep,  they  shall 
give  the  priest  the  shoulder  and  the  breast : 
.  .  .  .  For  the  Lord  thy  God  hath  chosen 
him  of  all  th}-  tribes,  to  stand,  and  to  minis- 
ter to  the  name  of  the  Lord,  him  and  his 
son  Si.  forever." 

And  (Deut.  XVIII,  6-8):  "If  a  Levite 
go  out  of  any  of  the  cities  throughout  all 
Israel,  in  which  he  dwelleth,  and  have  a 
longing  mind  to  come  to  the  place  which  the 
Lord  shall  choose,  ....  He  shall  receive 
the  same  portion  of  food  that  the  rest  do : 
besides  that  which  is  due  to  him  in  his  own 
city,  by  succession  from  his  fathers."  In 
this  passage  a  clear  and  fixed  distinction  is 
certainly  made  between  a  priest  and  Levite. 
Indeed  in  the  whole  book  of  Deuteronomy 
wherever   reference  is  made   to  priests   the 


—  87- 

same  functions  are  ascribed   to   them  as  to 
priests  in  the  Levitical  Law. 

On  the  other  hand  where  Levites  are 
spoken  of  they  are  regarded  as  objects  of 
charitable  beneficence,  as  a  dependent  and 
needy  class,  as  in  (Deut.  XIV,  29) :  "  And 
the  Levite  that  hath  no  other  part  nor  pos- 
session with  thee,  and  the  stranger,  and 
the  fatherless,  and  the  widow,  that  are  with- 
in thy  gates,  shall  come  and  shall  eat  and 
be  filled :  That  the  Lord  thy  God  may  bless 
thee  in  all  the  works  of  thy  hands  that 
thou  shalt  do." 

In  (Deut.  XXVII,  9,  12,  14)  distinction  is 
clearly  made  between  Levitical  priests  and 
Levites.  Deuteronomy  all  along  makes  a 
distinction  between  priests  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi  who  perform  priestly  duties  and  Le- 
vites who  do  not. 

Deut.  X,  6,  fixes  the  priesthood  in  Aaron 
and  his  sons.  The  Levitical  Law  similarly 
establishes  the  priesthood  in  the  family  of 
Aaron. 

This  passage  of  Deut.  XVIII,  6,  7)  : 
^'  If  a  Levite  go  out  of  any  one  of  the  cities 
throughout  all  Israel,  in  which  he  dwelleth, 
and  have  a  longing  mind  to  come  to  the 
place  which  the  Lord  shall  choose,  he 
shall  minister  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  his 
God,  as  all  his  brethern  the  Levites  do, 
that  shall  stand  at    that    time    before    the 


—  S8  — 

Lord."  The  plain  meaning  of  these  words 
is  that  any  Levite  whatever  can  officiate  in 
the  sanctuary  and  perform  acts  proper  to 
his  grade;  if  a  priest,  those  of  a  priest;  if 
a  Levite,  those  of  a  Levite. 

In  regard  to  the  priestly  offerings  there 
is  no  contradiction  between  Deuteronomy 
and  the  Levitical  Law.  The  former  simply 
alludes  briefly  to  what  has  been  already 
laid  down  in  a  formal  and  detailed  manner 
by  the  latter. 

The  trouble  with  Wellhausen  is  that  he 
is  unwilling  to  take  the  author^s  plain 
meaning.  He  tries  to  force  upon  the  pas- 
sages meanings  entirely  foreign  to  the 
language.  Wellhausen  is  the  Ignatius 
Donnelly  of  the  Pentateuch.  With  a  great 
show  of  learning,  shrewdness  and  verisim- 
ilitude he  feigns  to  find  an  adroitly  hidden 
cipher  in  the  Pentateuch  which  the  sacred 
penman  never  dreamed  of  putting  there. 


—  89  — 

Chapter  VI. 

THE   CREATION. 

Genesis  Kosmou  (Generation  of  the 
World)  or  briefly  Genesis,  is  tlie  name  of 
the  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch  and  is  so- 
called  from  its  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
world. 

For  convenience  sake  it  has  been  sepa- 
rated into  fifty  chapters,  but  its  subject 
matter  seems  naturally  to  divide  itself  into 
two  parts  ;  the  first  of  which  reaches  from 
the  first  to  the  twelfth  chapter  and  the  sec- 
ond from  the  twelfth  to  the  fiftieth  chapter. 

The  first  part  of  Genesis  contains  the 
history  of  the  creation,  an  account  of  the 
terrestrial  paradise,  the  fall  of  man,  the  del- 
uge, the  repeopling  of  the  earth,  the  Tower 
of  Babel,  the  confusion  of  tongues,  the  dis- 
persion of  mankind,  the  genealogies  of  the 
patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Abraham;  and  of 
the  religion,  arts,  settlements,  corruption 
and  destruction  of  the  antediluvian  world. 

The  second  part  gives  a  liistor}^  of  the 
patriarchs  from  Abraham  to  Joseph  and 
embraces  an  account  of  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  Hebrew  nation. 

In  the  Hebrew  scriptures  this  first  book 
of  Moses  is  called  Bereshith,  from  the  first 
word    in   the    text:     ''In    the    Beginning" 


—  90- 

(bereshith).  Its  narrative  goes  back  to 
the  very  twilight  of  antiquity  and  embraces 
a  period  variously  estimated  at  from  2300 
to  3619  years. 

Independently  of  the  rest  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, to  which  it  stands  as  an  introduction, 
Genesis  forms  of  itself  a  complete  whole 
and  although  portions  of  it  seem  discord- 
ant, it  being  of  the  character  of  a  diary, 
nevertheless  it  does  not  want  essential 
unity. 

Much  of  Genesis  must  have  been  the 
work  of  direct  revelation.  Some  portions, 
it  would  seem,  Moses  wrote  under  the  in- 
fluence of  inspiration,  from  patriarchal 
tradition,  and  probably  some  parts,  too,  from 
more  ancient  documents  already  existing. 

The  cosmogony  of  Moses  is  certainly  in- 
finitely more  sublime  and  morally  superior 
to  all  other  accounts  of  the  creation. 

The  discovery  of  similar  traditions  re- 
garding the  creation  in  the  religious  records 
of  other  primeval  nations  is  a  powerfully 
corroborating  proof  of  the  historical  truth 
of  the  Mosaic  account.  And  particularly 
as  far  as  language  is  concerned  the  most 
recent  and  most  intelligent  investigations 
aflirm  the  Mosaic  division  of  mankind  into 
three  principal  races,  corresponding  to  the 
descendants  of  Noah's  sons,  Shem,  Ham  and 
Japhet,  to  be  substantially  correct. 


—  91  — 

The  first  chapter  of  Genesis  contains 
Moses'  sublime  and  noble  history  of  crea- 
tion: "In  the  beginning  God  created  the 
Heaven  and  the  Earth.  And  the  earth 
was  void  and  empt}^,  and  darkness  was  upon 
the  face  of  the  deep ;  and  the  spirit  of  God 
moved  over  the  waters.  And  God  said  :  Be 
light  made.     And  light  was  made. 

And  God  saw  the  light  that  it  was  good : 
and  He  divided  the  light  from  the  darkness. 
And  He  called  the  light  Day,  and  the  dark- 
ness Night :  and  there  was  evening  and 
morning  one  day. 

And  God  said:  Let  there  be  a  firmament 
made  amidst  the  waters  :  and  let  it  divide 
the  waters  from  the  waters. 

And  God  made  a  firmament,  and  divided 
the  waters  that  were  under  the  firmament, 
from  those  that  were  above  the  firmament. 
And  it  was  so. 

And  God  called  the  firmament.  Heaven : 
and  the  evening  and  morning  were  the  sec- 
ond day. 

God  also  said :  Let  the  waters  that  are 
under  the  Heaven,  be  gathered  together  in- 
to one  place  :  and  let  the  dry  land  appear. 
And  it  was  so  done.  And  God  called  the 
dry  land,  Earth :  and  the  gathering  together 
of  the  waters  he  called  Seas.  And  God  saw 
that  it  was  good. 

And  He  said :   Let  the  earth  bring  forth 


—  92  — 

the  green  herb,  and  such  as  may  seed,  and 
the  fruit  tree  yielding  fruit  after  its  kind, 
which  may  have  seed  in  itself  upon  the 
earth.     And  it  was  so  done. 

And  the  earth  brought  forth  the  green 
herb,  and  such  as  yieldeth  seed  according 
to  its  kind  and  the  tree  that  beareth  fruit, 
having  seed  each  one  according  to  its  kind. 
And  God  saw  that  it  was  good. 

And  the  evening  and  the  morning  were 
the  third  day. 

And  God  said:  Let  there  be  lights  made 
in  the  firmament  of  heaven,  to  divide  the 
day  and  the  night,  and  let  them  be  for  signs, 
and  for  seasons  and  for  days  and  years : 

To  shine  in  the  firmament  of  heaven, 
and  to  give  light  upon  the  earth.  And  it 
was  so  done. 

And  God  made  two  great  lights:  A 
greater  light  to  rule  the  day :  and  a  lesser 
light  to  rule  the  night :  and  stars. 

And  he  set  them  in  the  firmament  of 
heaven,  to  shine  upon  the  earth. 

And  to  rule  the  day  and  the  night,  and 
to  divide  the  light  and  the  darkness.  And 
God  saw  that  it  was  good. 

And  the  evening  and  morning  were  the 
fourth  day. 

God  also  said  :  Let  the  waters  bring  forth 
the   creeping  creature  having  life,  and  the 


—  93  — 

fowl  that  may  fl}^  over  the  earth  under  the 
firmament  of  heaven. 

And  God  created  the  great  whales,  and 
every  living  and  moving  creature,  which  the 
waters  brought  forth,  according  to  their 
kinds,  and  every  winged  fowl  according  to 
its  kind.     And  God  saw  that  it  was  good. 

And  he  blessed  them  saying  :  Increase  and 
multiply,  and  fill  the  waters  of  the  sea :  and 
let  the  birds  be  multiplied  upon  the  earth. 

And  the  evening  and  morning  were  the 
fifth  da}^ 

And  God  said:  Let  the  earth  bring  forth 
the  living  creature  in  its.  kind,  cattle,  and 
creeping  things,  and  beasts  of  the  earth 
according  to  their  kinds  :  and  it  was  done. 

And  God  made  the  beasts  of  the  earth 
according  to  their  kinds,  and  cattle,  and 
everything  that  creepeth  on  the  earth  after 
its  kind.     And  God  saw  that  it  was  good. 

And  he  said :  Let  us  make  man  to  our 
image  and  likeness ;  and  let  him  have 
dominion  over  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  and 
the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  the  beasts,  and  the 
whole  earth,  and  every  creeping  creature 
that  moveth  upon  the  earth. 

And  God  created  man  to  his  own  image  : 
to  the  image  of  God  he  created  him,  male 
and  female  he  created  them. 

And  God  blessed  them,  sa3'ing  :  Increase 
and  multiply,  and  fill   the   earth,  and  sub- 


—  94  — 

due  it,  and  rule  over  the  fishes  of  the  sea, 
and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  all  living 
creatures  that  move  upon  the  earth. 

And  God  said :  Behold,  I  have  given  you 
every  herb  bearing  seed  upon  the  earth,  and 
all  trees  that  have  in  themselves  seed  of 
their  own  kind,  to  be  your  meat. 

And  to  all  beasts  of  the  earth,  and  to 
every  fowl  of  the  air,  and  to  all  that  move 
upon  the  earth,  and  wherein  there  is  life, 
that  they  may  have  to  feed  upon.  And  it 
was  done. 

And  God  saw  all  the  things  that  he  had 
made  ;  and  they  were  very  good.  And  the 
evening  and  morning  were  the  sixth  da}^" 

There  are  various  opinions  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  six  days  mentioned  in 
Genesis  in  which  the  creation  was  accom- 
plished. 

Some  regard  them  as  ordinary  mean  solar 
days  of  twenty-four  hours  each,  and  take 
the  w^ords  of  Moses  in  their  strict  literal 
sense,  claiming  that  God  in  creating  the 
earth  could  by  his  omnipotent  power  im- 
press upon  it  instantly  all  the  marks  and 
features  of  age. 

Others  while  looking  upon  the  days  of 
Genesis  as  mere  solar  days,  consider  that 
the  creation  of  matter  and  its  evolution 
from  its  primeval  chaotic  state  into  the 
universe    as  we   now    see    it,   were   accom- 


—  95  — 

plished  in  that  indefinite  period  designated 
in  Genesis  as:   "  In  the  beginning." 

Again  other  theorists  believe  in  a  series 
of  successive  revolutions,  whereb}'  the  world 
was  destroyed  and  renew^ed.  Many  ancient 
cosmogonies  seem  to  agree  with  this  view. 

Others  still  regard  the  days  of  creation 
as  might}^  epochs  during  the  progress  of 
which  the  earth  and  its  neighbors  in  space 
grew  slowly  by  evolution  into  their  present 
shape. 

The  church  has  not  spoken  upon  the  mat- 
ter. She  has  formulated  no  definition  of 
the  length  of  the  Mosaic  days.  So  that  a 
Catholic  can  hold  the  opinion  that  the  days 
of  Genesis  were  not  ordinary  ones,  but  great 
epochs,  without  in  the  slightest  degree  com- 
promising his  faith. 

The  hypothesis  of  epochs  for  the  days  of 
creation  would  bring  Genesis,  Astronomy, 
Geology  and  Biology  into  essential  har- 
mon}^ 

A  great  number  of  Biblical  commenta- 
tions claim  that  the  Hebrew  word  iom  from 
which  dies,  day,  is  translated  is  frequently 
used  in  Scripture  for  an  epoch. 

The  supporters  of  this  opinion  say  that 
it  is  quite  evident  "  that  the  duration  of  the 
three  first  days  must  be  to  us  an  indefinite 
period,  as  we  can  neither  refer  them  to,  nor 
compare  them  with,  any  known  standard,  as 


—  96  — 

tlie  planets  destined  to  point  out  the  times 
and  the  seasons,  the  days  and  the  nights, 
were  not  then  in  existence,  not  being  formed 
until  the  fourth  day.  And  as  Moses  makes 
no  distinction  between  the  three  first  and 
the  three  last  days,  the  inference  will  fol- 
low, that  the  word  day^  preceded  by  the 
terms  yfri"/  and  second^  was  made  use  of  by 
him  to  determine  the  order  of  the  succes- 
sive creations  composing  the  universe,  and 
not  for  pointing  out  any  definite  space  of 
time." 

St.  Augustine  (Gen.  B.  IV,  Note  44)  says: 
^'That  we  should  not  hastily  pronounce  on 
the  nature  of  the  six  days  of  creation,  nor 
assert  that  they  were  similar  to  our  ordinary 
days."  And  in  his  City  of  God  (De  Civ. 
Dei,  lib.  i  ch.  VI.)  :  "  That  it  is  difficult  and 
even  impossible  for  us  to  imagine,  and  even 
more  so  to  say,  what  might  be  the  nature 
of  those  days." 

We  may  safely  then  regard  the  days  of 
Genesis  as  epochs  of  indefinite  length  dur- 
ing the  lapse  of  which  took  place  those  suc- 
cessive creations  mentioned  by  Moses. 

Evolution  is  everywhere  apparent  in 
nature.  The  man  is  evolved  from  the  child, 
the  mighty  oak  from  the  sapling,  the  plant 
from  the  seed.  God  could  have  prepared 
the  world  by  evolution  for  the  separate  cre- 
ations of  more   perfect  species.       It  is  not 


more  difficult  for  God  to  liave  created  the 
universe  by  evolution  than  to  sustain  it  by 
motion. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  order  of  creation 
as  recorded  in  Genesis. 

In  the  beginning  God  created  Heaven 
and  earth  or  all  matter.  This  matter  made 
its  first  appearance  in  a  state  designated  by 
Moses  as  ''void  and  empty"  or  in  a  com- 
pletely chaotic  condition. 

Then  began  under  the  infinite  intelligence 
and  power  of  God  the  successive  mouldings 
of  this  immense  mass  of  sluggish  formless 
matter  into  symmetrical  worlds. 

On  the  first  day  and  anterior  to  Sun  or 
Moon,  God  created  Light  or  formed  the 
luminous  substance  known  as  ether  and 
which  extends  out  to  the  boundless  limits 
of  space  and  permeates  the  interstices  of  all 
bodies. 

When  the  earth  began  slowly  to  draw 
away  from  the  immense  mass  of  chaotic  va- 
por and  to  shape  itself  under  the  resultant 
force  of  motion  and  gravitation  it  was  noth- 
ing more  in  appearance  than  a  great  cloud 
or  globular  fog-bank. 

The  dense  inner  portion  of  this  vaporous 
mass  began  to  form  the  earth's  heavy  nu- 
cleus and  draw  away  from  the  lighter  cloud 
mass  set  floating  in  the  air  and  thus  the 
waters  beneath  were  divided  from  the  waters 


—  98  — 

above  by  a  permanent  expanse  called  by 
Moses  the  Firmament.  On  the  second  day 
God  formed  this  Firmament  or  Heaven. 

On  the  third  day  the  oceans  and  conti- 
nents were  formed,  the  dry  land  was  parted 
from  the  mass  of  waters  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  the  simplest  forms  of  life  appeared 
called  by  Moses:  ''The  green  herb,  and 
such  as  may  seed." 

It  is  well  to  notice  just  here  that  the 
lowest  kinds  of  vegetable  and  animal  life, 
the  protophyte  and  protozoon,  do  not  require 
the  chemical  rays  of  the  Sun  for  their 
growth  and  substance.  This  first  form  of 
cell  life  needs  only  a  warm  soil  and  a  moist 
atmosphere  strongly  saturated  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas  for  its  support  and  develop- 
ment. 

On  the  fourth  day  appeared  the  Sun, 
Moon  and  Stars.  The  great  central  orb 
after  throwing  off  its  different  rings  of  va- 
por became  more  and  more  condensed  under 
the  action  of  its  own  gravity  and  began 
gradually  to  assume  its  present  shape  and 
appear  as  a  glowing  sun. 

The  earth's  offspring,  the  Moon,  settled 
down  to  its  offices  of  a  most  beneficent  satel- 
lite. 

Our  planet's  atmosphere,  also,  became 
sufficiently  clear  to  render  visible  the  twink- 
ling of  the  stars. 


—  99  — 

The  firmament  here  referred  to  by  Moses 
is  the  limitless  expanse  stretching  out  into 
interstellar  space  and  which  differs  only 
from  the  firmament  of  the  second  day,  in 
being  its  prolongation. 

In  the  cosmogony  of  Moses  the  heavenly 
bodies  are  important  relatively  to  their  in- 
fluence upon  our  planet  and  hence  the  Sun 
and  Moon  are  called  two  great  lights  al- 
though there  are  suns  in  space  much  brighter 
and  greater  than  our  own. 

On  the  fifth  day  God  made  the  fishes  and 
the  birds.  When  the  seasons  were  estab- 
lished and  the  sun's  chemical  rays  beamed 
upon  the  earth  and  rendered  it  suitable  as 
the  habitation  of  a  higher  type  of  life  than 
the  protophyte  and  the  protozoon  God  called 
forth  the  fishes  and  the  birds.  The  fifth 
day  was  the  proper  age  of  the  lower  animals, 
of  the  creeping  creatures,  that  swarm  in  the 
waters,  and  the  fowl  that  fly  over  the  earth. 

Nowhere,  however,  in  God's  creation  is 
the  higher  species  of  animals  evolved  from 
the  lower.  In  God's  work  there  is  no  de- 
scent of  species.  There  was  a  progress  of 
species,  but  this  progress  does  not  signify 
that  the  earliest  species  were  necessarily 
the  lowest  to  be  always  followed  by  a  higher 
type.  In  the  more  imperfect  conditions  of 
life,  the  more  common  type  is  the  precursor, 
but  not  ancestor,  of  its  betters  in  the  better 


—  100  — 

conditions  whicli  successively  followed  each 

other. 

On  the  sixth  day  God  created  the  higher 
animal  life,  the  mammals,  or  as  Moses 
states  it,  the  beasts  of  the  earth  according 
to  their  kinds  are  brought  forth,  and  cattle, 
and  everything  that  prowleth  on  the  earth. 
And  lastly  on  this  sixth  day  God  made  man 
to  his  own  image  and  likeness. 

Another  view  of  the  da^^s  of  Genesis 
would  be  to  regard  them  in  a  figurative  or 
symbolical  sense  and  the  Mosaic  narrative 
as  more  of  a  theological  than  a  historical 
account  of  creation.  Philo,  Origen,  Proco- 
pius  and  many  ancient  commentators  took 
this  view  of  the  matter  long  before  our 
modern  geological  discoveries,  and  so  were 
not  driven  to  it  by  the  progress  of  the 
physical  sciences. 

As  the  figure  of  the  eye  is  symbolical  of 
sight  so  the  six  days  are  symbolical  of  the 
successively  accomplished  works  of  the 
creator. 

According  to  the  symbolic  sense  the  days 
of  Moses  ''  are  not  any  succession  of  time, 
but  a  succession  of  order  and  reason,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  proportioning  himself  to 
the  understanding  of  the  people,  and  to  give 
them  a  more  distinct  notion  of  the  creation 
of  beings  by  distributing  them  in  this  way 


—  101  — 

into  divisions,  and    according   to  a  certain 
classification." 

These  commentators,  then,  understand 
the  six  da3^s  to  be  neither  literal  da^-s  not 
any  measure  whatever  of  time,  but  symbol- 
ical expressions  under  which  the  works  of 
creation  are  classified ;  a  succession  in  the 
order  of  conception,  but  not  in  the  order  of 
events  ;  not  in  the  order  of  execution,  but 
in  the  plan;  not  as  things  happen  before 
the  e3^es  of  men,  but  in  the  mind  of  God. 

In  this  view  it  would  not  matter  which 
creatures  were  created  first  and  which  last, 
as  neither  measure  of  time,  nor  order  of 
succession  is  attributed  to  the  text.  In  this 
way  there  could  not  be  possibly  any  clash 
between  the  JMosaic  cosmogony  and  scien- 
tific discoveries. 

Under  this  interpretation  the  object  of 
Moses  was  purel}^  a  religious  one.  It  was 
simply  to  teach,  in  accordance  with  the  old 
patriarchal  traditions  that  all  things,  water, 
air,  earth,  light,  sun,  moon,  stars,  plants, 
fishes,  reptiles,  mammals  and  man  himself 
had  been  created  according  to  their  natures 
and  that  the  substance  of  the  world  was  not 
eternal  but  called  into  existence  bv  the  will 
of  God. 

This  symbolic  interpretation  is  indeed 
a  very  ancient  one,  but  in  our  times  it  is 
neither  a  verv  common  nor  a  popular  one. 


—  102  — 

Chapter  VII. 

MOSES  AND  IvAPLACE. 

There  is  certainly  nothing  in  Biblical  lit- 
erature that  has  given  rise  to  such  violent 
controversies  as  the  Mosaic  cosmogony.  It 
is  claimed  by  many  distinguished  votaries 
of  astronomy,  geology,  chronology  and  biol- 
ogy, that  these  sciences  have  discovered  un- 
deniable physical  facts  irreconcilable  with 
explicit  statements  in  the  opening  chapters 
of  Genesis. 

It  is  claimed  that  modern  science  and 
Genesis  are  at  variance  concerning  the  age 
of  the  world  and  the  creation  and  forma- 
tion of  the  universe.  Is,  then,  the  cos- 
mogony of  Laplace  contradictory  to  that  of 
Moses? 

Among  a  number  of  modern  hypotheses 
purporting  to  account  for  the  present  har- 
monious mechanism  of  the  world  the  most 
beautiful  and  famous  is  the  Nebular  H}^- 
pothesis  of  Laplace.  This  nebular  hypoth- 
esis does  not  concern  itself  with  the  origin 
of  matter,  supposing  it  already  in  existence, 
and  treats  only  of  its  transformations. 

Laplace  begins  b}^  supposing  the  sun  not 
only  as  already  having  some  existence,  but 
as  having  acquired  some  development,  as 
having  in  fact  a  more  or  less  dense  nucleus, 


— 103  - 

surrounded  by  a  rare,  elastic  atmospliere  of 
vast  extent. 

He  considers  this  nucleus  as  either  solid 
or  so  dense,  compared  with  the  atmosphere, 
as  to  be  relatively  solid,  and  to  contain  by 
far  the  greatest  amount  of  the  body's  mass. 

He  assumes,  for  the  sake  of  convenience, 
the  form  of  this  nucleus  to  be  alread}'  re- 
duced to  that  of  a  spheroid,  differing  but 
slightly  from  a  sphere  ;  but  the  shape  of 
the  atmosphere's  bounding  surface  he  leaves 
to  be  determined  solely  b}^  the  resultant 
of  the  centrifugal  and  gravitating  forces, 
springing  from  any  given  mass  and  velocity 
of  rotation  that  the  body  can  have. 

The  nucleus  and  atmosphere  are  rotating 
on  an  axis.  Laplace  calls  the  distance  of 
that  portion  of  the  atmosphere  from  the 
axis  where  the  centrifugal  force  just  bal- 
ances gravity,  the  centrifugal  limit. 

Laplace  then  demonstates  mathematically 
that  at  the  centrifugal  limit  of  the  atmos- 
phere of  a  rotating  body,  over  the  equator, 
the  equatorial  radius  is  to  the  polar  precisely 
as  three  to  two. 

When,  then,  the  axial  motion  of  the  sun 
became  so  great  that  the  centrifugal  force 
caused  its  atmosphere's  equatorial  axis  to 
be  to  its  polar  as  three  to  two,  the  outer 
portion  of  the  atmosphere  would  leave  the 
sun. 


—  104  — 

Laplace  supposed  that  owing  to  excessive 
heat  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun  extended 
be^^ond  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets,  and 
that  it  has  successfully  contracted  up  to  its 
present  limits. 

He  conjectures  that  the  planets  were 
formed  at  the  successive  centrifugal  limits 
of  the  solar  atmosphere  by  the  condensa- 
tion of  the  zones  of  vapor  which,  in  cool- 
ing, it  had  been  obliged  to  abandon  in  the 
plane  of  its  equator.  But  this  hypothesis 
of  Laplace  is  so  beautiful  and  so  important 
that  it  is  best  to  give  the  great  mathemati- 
cian's own  words  :  ''  The  atmosphere  of  the 
sun,"  he  sa3^s,  ''  could  not  extend  outward 
indefinitely.  Its  limit  is  the  point  where 
the  centrifugal  force,  due  to  its  axial  mo- 
tion, balances  gravity. 

^'Now,  in  proportion  as  its  cooling  causes 
the  atmosphere  to  contract  and  to  be  con- 
densed towards  the  sun's  surface,  the  mo- 
tion of  rotation  must  increase.  For,  b}^ 
virtue  of  the  principle  of  areas,  the  sum  of 
the  areas  described  by  the  radius-vector  of 
each  molecule  of  the  sun  and  of  its  atmos- 
phere, when  projected  on  the  plane  of  his 
equator,  being  always  the  same,  the  rotation 
ought  to  be  more  rapid  when  these  mole- 
cules are  brought  nearer  the  sun's  centre. 
The  centrifugal  force,  due  to  this  increased 
motion,  thus  becoming  greater,  the  point  at 


—  105  — 

which    gravity    is    equal   to    it,   approaches 
nearer  the  sun's  centre. 

"  By  supposing,  therefore,  what  it  is  very 
natural  to  admit,  that  the  sun's  atmosphere 
at  au}^  epoch  had  extended  up  to  this  limit, 
it  would  be  necessary,  on  further  cooling, 
for  the  atmosphere  to  abandon  the  mole- 
cules situated  at  this  limit  and  at  the  suc- 
cessive limits  produced  by  the  increase  of 
the  sun's  rotation. 

"These  molecules,  thus  abandoned,  have 
continued  to  circulate  around  the  sun  in  the 
same  direction  as  before,  since  their  centrif- 
ugal force  was  just  balanced  b}^  their  gravi- 
t}^  towards  the  sun. 

"  But  this  equality  of  centrifugal  force 
and  gravity  not  taking  place  with  regard  to 
the  atmospheric  molecules  placed  on  the 
parallels  to  the  solar  equator,  these  latter 
molecules,  b}^  their  gravity,  will  follow  the 
atmosphere  in  proportion  as  it  is  condensed, 
and  will  not  cease  to  belong  to  it  until  by 
their  motion  the}^  have  reached  the  equator. 

"  Let  us  consider  now  the  zones  of  vapor 
successively  abandoned.  These  zones  ought, 
most  probably,  to  form  b}^  their  condensation 
and  the  mutual  attraction  of  their  molecules, 
various  concentric  rings  of  vapor  revolving 
around  the  sun.  The  mutual  friction  of 
the  molecules  of  each  ring  ought  to  acceler- 
ate those  moving  more  slowl}^,  and  retard 


—  106  — 


the  swifter,  until  they  should  all  have  ac- 
quired the  same  angular  motion  about  the 


sun. 


'  Hence,  the  real  velocit}^  of  the  molecules 
farthest  from  the  sun  will  be  the  greatest. 

''  The  following  cause  ought  to  contribute 
also  to  this  difference  of  velocity.  The 
molecules  of  the  ring  most  distant  from  the 
sun,  and  which,  by  the  effect  of  cooling  and 
condensing,  are  brought  nearer,  so  as  to 
form  the  outer  portion  of  the  ring,  have 
always  described  areas  proportioned  to  the 
time  ;  since  the  central  force  by  which  they 
are  animated  has  been  constantly  directed 
towards  the  sun's  center. 

"  Now,  this  constanc}^  of  areas  requires  an 
increase  of  velocity  in  proportion  as  they 
approach  the  centre  of  motion.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  same  cause  ought  to  diminish 
the  velocity  of  those  molecules  which,  by 
the  cooling  and  contracting  process,  are 
carried  outwards  to  form  the  inner  part  of 
the  ring. 

^'If  all  the  molecules  of  one  of  these  va- 
porous rings  had  continued  to  condense 
withou.t  separating,  they  Vv^ould  have  formed 
at  last  a  liquid  or  a  solid  ring. 

"  But  the  regularity  which  such  a  forma- 
tion requires  in  all'parts  of  the  ring,  and  in 
their  rate  of  cooling,  ought  to  render  this 
phenomenon  extremely  rare. 


—  107  — 

"Hence  the  Solar  S3'stem  offers  but  a 
single  example  of  it ;  namely,  that  of  the 
rings  of  Saturn.  Almost  always  each  va- 
porous ring  ought  to  be  broken  into  several 
masses,  which,  moving  with  nearly  the  same 
velocity,  have  continued  to  revolve  around 
the  sun  at  the  same  distance  from  him. 

"  These  masses  ought  each  one  to  take  on 
a  spheroidal  form,  with  a  motion  of  rotation 
in  the  same  direction  as  their  motion  of 
revolution  around  the  sun  ;  since  their  mole- 
cules nearest  to  him  had  less  velocit}^  than 
those  farthest  from  him. 

''  The}^  must,  therefore,  have  formed  so 
many  planets  in  a  vaporous  condition.  But 
if  one  of  them  had  been  large  and  powerful 
enough  to  successively  reunite  by  its  attrac- 
tion all  the  others  around  its  own  centre, 
the  vaporous  ring  will  have  been  thus  trans- 
formed into  a  single  spheroidal  vaporous 
mass  revolving  around  the  sun  nearly  in 
the  plane  of  his  equator,  with  a  nearly  circu- 
lar orbit,  and  with  its  motion  of  rotation 
generally  in  the  same  direction  with  that  of 
its  revolution  around  the  sun. 

"  This  last  case  has  been  the  most  com- 
mon ;  but  the  solar  system  offers  to  us  an 
example  of  the  first  case  in  the  four  small 
planets  revolving  between  Mars  and  Jupi- 
ter, unless  we  suppose,  with  Olbers,  that 
they  formed  at  first  a  single  planet  which 


—  108  — 

some  strong  explosion  has  divided  into  sev- 
eral parts,  animated  by  different  velocities. 

^'  If,  now,  we  follow  the  changes  which 
further  cooling  ought  to  produce  in  the 
planets  consisting  of  vapor,  the  formation 
of  which  we  have  just  considered,  we  shall 
see  a  nucleus  begin  at  the  centre  of  each  of 
them,  and  see  it  grow  continually  by  the 
condensation  of  the  atmosphere  which  sur- 
rounds it. 

'^  In  this  state  the  planet  perfectly  re- 
sembles the  sun  in  the  nebulous  condition 
which  we  have  been  considering.  Its  cool- 
ing ought,  therefore,  to  produce,  at  the  dif- 
ferent centrifugal  limits  of  its  atmosphere, 
phenomena  similar  to  those  which  we  have 
described  ;  that  is  to  say,  rings  and  satel- 
lites revolving  around  its  centre  in  the  di- 
rection of  its  motion  of  rotation,  and  the 
satellites  rotating  also  in  the  same  direction 
on  their  axes. 

''  The  regular  distribution  of  the  mass  of 
Saturn's  rings  around  his  centre,  and  in 
the  plane  of  his  equator,  results  natural^ 
from  this  hypothesis,  and  without  it  be- 
comes inexplicable.  These  rings  appear  to 
me  to  be  the  ever-existing  proof  of  the  for- 
mer extension  of  Saturn's  atmosphere,  and 
of  its  successive  contractions. 

'^  Thus,  the  singular  phenomena  of  the 
small  eccentricities  of  the  orbits  of  the  sev- 


— 100  — 

eral  planets,  and  those  of  their  satellites,  or 
their  almost  circnlar  orbits,  the  small  incli- 
nations of  these  orbits  to  the  sun's  equator, 
and  the  identity  of  the  motions  of  rotation 
and  revolution  of  all  these  bodies  with  that 
of  the  sun's  rotation,  flow  from  the  hypoth- 
esis which  we  propose,  and  give  to  it  a  great 
probability,  which  may  be  still  further  in- 
creased, b}^  the  following  considerations. 

''  All  the  bodies  which  revolve  around  a 
planet,  having  been  formed,  according  to 
this  hypothesis,  by  the  zones  which  its  at- 
mosphere has  successively  abandoned,  and 
the  planet's  motion  of  rotation  having  be- 
come more  and  more  rapid,  the  duration  of 
this  rotation  ought  to  be  less  than  those  of 
the  revolution  of  these  different  bodies. 
This  must  be  true,  likewise,  for  the  sun  in 
comparison  with  the  planets.  All  this  is 
confirmed  bv  observation. 

"  The  duration  of  revolution  of  Saturn's 
nearest  ring  is,  according  to  Herschel's  ob- 
servations, 0.438  d.,  and  that  of  Saturn's 
rotation  is  0.427  d.  The  difference,  o.oii  d., 
is  small,  as  it  ought  to  be  ;  because  the  part 
of  Saturn's  atmosphere  w^hich  the  loss  of 
heat  has  condensed  upon  the  planet's  sur- 
face since  the  formation  of  this  ring  being 
small,  and  coming  from  a  small  height, 
it  ought  to  have  produced  but  a  small  in- 
crease of  the  planet's  rotation. 


—  no  — 

If  the  Solar  System  had  been  formed 
with  perfect  regularity,  the  orbits  of  the 
bodies  which  compose  it  would  have  been 
perfect  circles,  whose  planes,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  different  equators  and  rings,  w^ould 
have  coincided  exactly  with  the  sun's  equa- 
tor. But  we  can  conceive  that  the  innum- 
erable varieties  which  ought  to  have  pre- 
vailed in  the  temperature  and  density  of 
the  several  parts  of  these  great  masses  have 
produced  the  eccentricities  of  their  orbits 
and  the  deviations  of  their  motions  from 
the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator. 

''  In  our  hypothesis  the  comets  are  stran- 
gers to  the  planetary  system.  Considering 
them,  as  we  have  done,  as  small  nebulae 
wandering  from  one  solar  system  to  an- 
other, and  formed  b}-  the  condensation  of 
nebulous  matter  so  profusely  scattered 
throughout  the  universe,  it  is  evident  that 
when  they  arrive  at  that  part  of  space  where 
the  sun's  attraction  predominates,  he  com- 
pels them  to  describe  elliptical  or  hyper- 
bolic orbits.  But  their  velocities  being 
equally  possible  in  all  directions,  they  ought 
to  move  indifferently  in  all  directions,  and 
under  all  inclinations  to  the  ecliptic,  which 
is  conformable  to  observation. 

Thus  the  condensation  of  nebulous  matter, 
by  which  we  have  explained  the  motions  of 
rotation  and  revolution  of  the  planets  and 


—  Ill  — 

satellites  in  the  same  direction  and  in  planes 
of  small  inclination  to  each  other,  explains 
equally  why  the  comets  depart  from  this 
general  law."  (The  Author's  Astronomy, 
page  234). 

Reasoning  backward  from  the  point  where 
he  assumed,  for  convenience,  the  sun  to  be 
a  dense  nucleus  with  a  hot  extensive  atmos- 
phere, Laplace  supposes  the  radiant  orb,  in 
a  more  primitive  state,  to  resemble  those 
nebulae  shown  by  the  telescope  to  be  com- 
posed of  a  brilliant  nucleus  surrounded  b}- 
a  nebulosit}^  which,  by  condensing  towards 
the  surface  of  the  nucleus,  transforms  it  into 
a  star. 

Judging  from  analogy,  he  supposed  the 
stars  all  formed  in  this  way  b}^  condensation 
from  nebulous  matter.  Each  condition  of 
nebulosity  was  preceded  by  other  conditions, 
in  which  the  nebulous  substance  was  more 
diffused,  and  the  nucleus  less  luminous  and 
less  condensed.  In  this  way  he  reaches  a 
condition  of  nebulosity  barely  existing. 

Because  our  planets  and  satellites  are  the 
offspring  of  the  same  atmosphere  in  whose 
primitive  motion  all  partook,  Laplace  points 
out  as  proofs  of  the  truth  of  his  hypothesis  : 
that  the  movements  of  the  planets  are  all  in 
the  same  direction,  and  nearly  in  the  same 
plane ; 


—  112  — 

That  the  motions  of  the  satellites  are  in 
the  same  direction  as  those  of  the  planets ; 

That  the  rotations  of  these  different 
bodies,  and  of  the  sun,  are  in  the  same  di- 
rections as  their  orbital  motions,  and  in 
planes  that  vary  but  little  from  each  other; 

That  the  paths  of  both  planets  and  satel- 
lites are  nearly  circular,  or  of  small  eccen- 
tricity ; 

That,  contrarily,  the  orbits  of  comets  are 
of  great  eccentricity,  and  of  every  inclina- 
tion to  the  ecliptic,  and  that  their  motions 
are  in  all  directions. 

Let  us  now  place  side  by  side  the  days  of 
creation  and  the  successive  developments  of 
the  Nebular  Hypothesis.  If  the  days  are 
taken  in  the  sense  of  ages  or  epochs  the 
agreement  between  the  two  cosmogonies  is 
indeed  wonderful. 

The  First  and  Second  Days  of  Moses 
and  the  Nebular  Hypothesis:  The  earth 
was  a  portion  of  that  nebulosity  embracing 
the  materials  of  the  sun  and  all  the  planets 
and  satellites.  Matter  was  held  in  this 
nebulous  condition  because  of  its  immense 
stores  of  latent  heat. 

This  nebulous  cloud  gradually  began  to 
turn  itself  upon  an  axis  by  a  natural  law  of 
mechanics  and  to  radiate  its  heat  into  space 
and  so  to  gradually  cool  and  condense  to- 
wards a  nucleus  or  centre. 


—  113  — 

In  this  fiery  cloud  were  the  vapors  of 
rocks  and  metals  and  metalloids  and  indeed 
of  all  the  elements  known  to  the  earth  and 
planets. 

Thus  far  indeed  the  condition  of  things 
in  this  scheme  of  worlds  of  ours  was  "  void 
and  empty." 

The  external  portion  of  this  vast  cloud 
touching  the  cold  of  space,  400°  Fahrenheit 
below  zero,  began  to  gradually  liquefy  and 
fall  upon  the  lighter  and  hotter  nucleus  in 
showers  of  molten  metal. 

These  were  again  reduced  to  a  vaporous 
state  and  driven  forth  towards  the  surface, 
not  however  without  the  fiery  mass  being 
deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  heat,  to  be  again 
cooled  by  radiation  and  again  thrown  back 
upon  the  centre  like  condensing  clouds. 
This  process  continued  until  a  thin  crust  of 
solidified  material  was  formed  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  glowing  mass. 

The  earth  grew  cooler  and  cooler  gradu- 
ally through  the  continued  action  of  radia- 
tion. Water  condensing  from  its  vapor 
began  to  form  upon  the  solidified  crust  of 
the  earth.  x\s  is  the  condition  now  upon 
the  planet  Venus,  which  is  covered  wdth  a 
cloud-mantle,  in  which  there  is  scarcely  ever 
a  rift,  continuous  rains  prevailed  for  a  long 
period  upon  the  earth,  maintaining  a  thick 
and    constant    darkness.      The    time    came 

8 


—  114  — 

when  these  incessant  rains  began  to  gradu- 
ally abate  and  the  clouds  were  rent  asunder 
and  the  atmosphere  became  a  permanent 
matter  dividing  the  water  above  from  the 
water  beneath.  This  atmosphere  is  the 
^'expanse  "  or  ^'  firmament  "  of  Moses. 

On  the  Third  Day,  owing  to  the  awful 
heat  of  the  interior,  the  newly  formed  crust 
of  the  earth  was  greatly  and  cons  tan  tl}^  con- 
vulsed, causing  upheavals  and  depressions. 

In  some  sections  appeared  the  dry  land 
and  in  others  the  waters  were  gathered  to- 
gether forming  oceans  and  seas. 

The  great  central  mass  had  thus  far 
thrown  off  Neptune,  Uranus,  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars  and  the  earth.  It  had  yet  to  cast  off 
Venus  and  Mercury  and  so  was  still  in  a 
nebulous  condition  and  not  sufficiently  con- 
densed to  be  regarded  as  a  sun. 

This  was  now  the  great  age  of  vegetation 
upon  the  earth,  or  the  carboniferous  period, 
and  corresponded  probably  to  the  present 
condition  of  things  on  the  planet  Venus. 
The  herbaceous  trees  and  rank  vegetation  of 
this  epoch  did  not  require  the  sun's  rays  for 
their  growth. 

On  the  Fourth  Day  the  central  molten 
mass,  having  thrown  off  all  the  planets  and 
satellites,  condensed  into  a  sun,  and  the  Moon 
had  assumed  its  proper  position  as  a  satellite, 


—  115  — 

it  having  been  previously  thrown  off  by  the 
earth. 

These  two  great  lights  and  the  stars  now 
appeared  in  the  sk}^,  visible  to  the  earth, 
because  the  cloud-canopy  of  the  earth  had 
been  rent  asunder  and  the  firmament  was 
sufficiently  clear  of  clouds  to  allow  a  view  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  from  the  earth. 

Moses  called  the  sun  and  moon  two  great 
lights  of  the  firmament,  although  compared 
with  other  bodies  in  the  universe  thev  are 
really  insignificant.  But  Moses  was  evi- 
dently giving  the  genesis  of  the  earth  and 
naturally  regarded  the  other  bodies  as  of 
secondary  consideration,  and  gave  them 
prominence  as  they  stood  towards  the  earth 
relatively  of  more  or  less  importance. 

After  the  appearance  of  the  sun,  moon 
and  stars,  Astronomy  steps  down  and  leaves 
the  consideration  of  the  further  develop- 
ments of  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  to  the 
science  of  Geology. 

The  distinguished  astronomer  Pritchard 
(1889),  speaking  of  Genesis,  has  this  to  say  : 
^'  That  it  could  not  originally  have  been  in- 
tended to  give  a  scientific  account  of  crea- 
tion in  its  precise  order,  or  method,  or 
limitation  of  time,  I  am  convinced  when  I 
read  of  (i)  the  existence  of  water  before  the 
appearance  of  the  sun;  (2)  the  clothing  of 
the  earth  wath  fruit  trees  and  grass,    each 


—  lie- 
bearing  its  fruit,  before  the  creation  of  the 
sun ;  (3)  the  successive  orders  or  stages  of 
creation    occupying    each    one    single    day 
(The  Creation  Proem  of  Genesis,  page  262)." 

Waters  could  certainly  have  existed  upon 
the  earth's  surface  anterior  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  central  mass  of  our  system  into  a 
sun  properly  so  called. 

The  nebulous  mass  of  the  earth  thrown 
off  by  the  sun  was  comparatively  small  and 
had  already  radiated  into  space  much  of  its 
latent  heat  and  had  greatly  condensed  even 
before  the  planet  Venus  was  cast  off  from 
the  central  mass.  Small  heated  gaseous 
bodies  cool  and  condense  much  more  rapidly 
than  large  ones.  The  immense  volume  of 
the  sun  had  to  contract  ninety-two  and  one 
half  million  miles  while  the  very  small  vol- 
ume of  the  earth  had  to  shrink  only  through 
a  quarter  of  a  million  miles.  Whilst  the 
sun  was  3^et  partially  nebulous  the  crust  of 
the  earth  must  have  been  already  formed 
and  covered  in  places  by  water. 

Pritchard's  second  objection,  the  clothing 
of  the  earth's  surface  with  vegetation  before 
the  appearance  of  the  sun,  is  sufficiently 
answered  by  saying  that  naturalists  now 
almost  unanimously  admit  that  vegetation 
could  exist  and  grow  luxuriantl}^,  in  a  warm 
soil    and  in  an  atmosphere    strongly   satu- 


—  117  — 

rated  with  watery  vapor  and  carbonic  acid 
gas,  independently  of  the  ra3^s  of  the  sun. 

His  third  objection  is  answered  by  assum- 
ing the  days  to  be  epochs,  or  if  literal  days, 
by  assuming  the  expression  of  Genesis,  "  In 
the  Beginning,''  as  an  indefinite  period  dur- 
ing the  lapse  of  which  all  developments 
could  have  occurred. 

The  different  sciences  are  continuall}^ 
changing.  They  are  gradually  and  con- 
stantty  improving.  With  each  new  light 
shed  upon  them  a  favorite  hypothesis  con- 
sidered as  all  but  established  has  to  be 
abandoned. 

Through  all  the  world's  vicissitudes  the 
Pentateuch  has  held  its  sacred  ground  and 
still  holds  the  reverence  of  the  civilized 
world.  Discoveries,  particularly  in  the  new 
sciences,  seemed  at  first  to  contradict  some 
statements  of  Moses,  but  later  on,  when  the 
sciences  became  better  developed,  the  seem- 
ing contradictions  disappeared. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  this  was  pre- 
sented by  the  science  of  Optics.  When 
modern  Optics  was  in  its  infancy,  there  was 
a  great  out-cry  because  Genesis  announced 
the  creation  of  Light  anterior  to  the  sun's 
existence.  But  when  Young  and  Fresnel 
discovered  by  genius  and  hard  work  the  true 
laws  of  Optics,  it  was  seen  that  this  science 


-118  — 

and  the  Pentateiicli  were  in  perfect  accord 
regarding  the  nature  of  Light. 

New  opinions  in  science  are  often  received 
by  inexperienced  amateurs  with  great  favor 
and  enthusiastically  embraced  without  prop- 
er care. 

When  these  seem  to  be  at  great  variance 
with  Biblical  records,  it  is  wise,  as  past  ex- 
periences show,  to  be  slow  in  accepting 
them.  Time  and  experiment  may  change 
them  altogether. 

Astronomy  is  certainly  one  of  the  oldest 
and  it  has  always  been  called  the  most  per- 
fect of  the  sciences.  The  Nebular  is  one 
'of  its  pet  hypotheses.  In  the  time  of  the 
Elder  Herschel  it  was  looked  upon  as  an 
established  Theory.  But  when  the  mighty 
telescope  of  Parsonstown  let  in  its  flood  of 
light  on  astronomy,  the  island  universes  of 
space  commenced  to  be  resolved  into  starry 
points,  and  the  scheme  of  Laplace  began  to 
weaken.  The  great  H3^pothesis  is  now  re- 
garded as  all  but  a  failure. 

Laplace  likened  the  Solar  System  in  its 
primitive  state  to  the  distant  nebulse,  which 
he  looked  upon  as  forming  star  systems,  and 
external  to,  and  quite  distinct  from,  the 
sidereal  universe. 

But  these  nebulse  are  not  external  galax- 
ies, nor  distinct  from  the  sidereal  system, 
but  are  indeed  part  and  parcel  of  it. 


—  119  — 

From  the  examination  of  the  great  irregu- 
lar nebula  surrounding  Eta  Argus,  the  great 
Orion  nebula,  the  nebulas  of  the  Nubeculae, 
and  similar  nebulae,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  a  real  and  close  association  exists  be- 
tween the  stars  and  nebulae,  and  .that  they 
really  constitute  but  a  single  system. 

According  to  Laplace,  the  primary  must 
rotate  on  its  axis  in  less  time  than  its  satel- 
lite revolves  about  it. 

The  inner  satellite  of  Mars,  on  the  con- 
trary, revolves  about  him  three  times  while 
he  is  rotating  once.  Here  is  an  observed 
fact,  opposing  the  H^^pothesis. 

The  sun  has  by  tidal  action  somewhat 
retarded  the  axial  velocity  of  Mars,  but  cer- 
tainly not  to  this  extraordinary  extent. 

It  is  admitted  that  the  earth's  axial  mo- 
tion has  been  but  little  affected  by  solar 
tidal  action.  Solar  tides  on  Mars  could  not, 
then,  have  produced  such  wondrous  effects. 

If  the  mass  of  Mars  be  less  than  the 
earth's,  his  diameter  is  also  much  less,  and, 
other  things  being  equal,  tidal  action  is 
proportioned  to  the  diameter  of  the  body 
acted  upon.  Mars,  too,  is  one  and  a  half 
times  more  distant  than  the  earth  from  the 
sun. 

One  of  the  main  pillars  of  Laplace's  h}-- 
pothesis  is  the  uniformity  of  the  motions, 
both  axial  and  revolutionary,  of  the  planets 


—  120  — 

and  satellites  in  the  same  direction  from  west 
to  east.  Here  again  is  an  observed  fact 
against  the  hypothesis.  The  satellites  of 
Uranus,  and  that  of  Neptune,  are  known  to 
have  a  retrograde  movement. 

There  is  a  great  d3mamical  principle 
known  as  the  conservation  of  the  ''moment 
of  momentum."  This  conservation  of  the 
moment  of  momentum  differs  entirely  from 
what  is  known  as  the  conservation  of  energy. 

The  energy  of  the  solar  system  can  be 
transformed  into  heat,  and  a  portion  of  it 
constantly  dissipated  and  lost  in  space,  but 
no  action  of  the  system  itself  can  ever  ali- 
enate a  single  iota  of  the  moment  of  mo- 
mentum. 

The  relative  distribution  of  the  moment 
of  momentum  ma}^  be  altered,  but  the  total 
amount,  barring  external  influence,  can  never 
be  changed. 

If  we  multiply  Jupiter's  mass  by  his  an- 
gular orbital  motion  in  one  second,  and  the 
product  by  the  square  of  his  distance  from 
the  sun,  we  obtain  Jupiter's  orbital  moment 
of  momentum. 

If  we  multiply  Jupiter's  mass  by  his  an- 
gular rotatory  motion  in  one  second,  and  the 
product  by  the  square  of  a  line  depending 
on  his  constitution,  we  have  his  rotational 
moment  of  momentum. 


—  121  — 

Similarly  the  moments  of  momentum  of 
the  other  planets  are  deduced. 

If  we  multiply  the  sun's  mass  by  his  an- 
gular rotatory  motion  in  one  second,  and  the 
product  by  the  square  of  a  line  depending 
on  his  constitution,  we  obtain  his  rotational 
moment  of  momentum. 

Professor  Ball  gives  the  following  distri- 
bution of  the  moment  of  momentum  in  the 
Solar  System,  the  total  being  taken  as  lOO. 

Orbital  moment  of  momentum  of  Jupiter 60 

Orbital  moment  of  momentum  of  Saturn 24 

Orbital  moment  of  momentum  of  Uranus 6 

Orbital  moment  of  momentum  of  Neptune   8 

Rotational  moment  of  momentum  of  the  Sun.   ...   2 

Total 100 

The  other  bodies  are  not  considered,  their 
moment  of  momentum  being  comparatively 
infinitesimal. 

Professor  Ball  says  :  "  It  might  be  hastily 
thought  that,  just  as  the  moon  was  born  of 
the  earth,  so  the  planets  were  born  of  the 
sun,  and  have  gradually  receded  by  tides 
into  their  present  condition.  We  have  the 
means  of  inquiry  into  this  question  b}^  the 
figures  just  given,  and  v»^e  shall  show  that 
it  seems  utterly  impossible  that  Jupiter,  or 
any  of  the  other  planets,  can  ever  have  been 
very  much  closer  to  the  sun  than  they  are 
at  present." 

Above  all  it  seems  utterly  impossible  that 


—  122  — 

Jupiter  could  have  received  his  orbital  mo- 
ment of  momentum  from  the  sun. 

Laplace's  hypothesis  places  the  centrifu- 
gal limits  of  the  abandoned  portions  of  the 
revolving  glowing  atmosphere  of  the  sun 
widely  apart.  After  abandoning  the  first 
vaporous  ring,  the  atmosphere  contracts  to 
nearly  one-half  its  primitive  bulk  before 
throwing  off  another.  The  abandonment  of 
each  ring  was  followed  by  an  immense  at- 
mospheric shrinkage. 

This  would  demand  such  great  cohesion 
in  a  glowing  mass  of  vapor  as  it  is  difficult 
to  concede  it  possessed.  It  would  seem  to 
be  more  in  accord  with  the  character  of  a 
gaseous  body  that,  when  the  centrifugal 
limit  was  reached  the  first  time,  the  outer 
mass,  under  the  influence  of  centrifugal 
force,  would  partially  separate  from  the  por- 
tions next  to  it ;  then  these  would  separate 
next,  and  so  on.  In  this  way,  instead  of  a 
series  of  rings,  there  would  be  a  constant 
dropping  off  of  matter  from  the  outer  por- 
tions, producing  an  almost  infinite  number 
of  concentric  rings,  all  joined  together. 
Thus,  there  would  result  a  meteoric  instead 
of  a  planetary  system.  This  is  the  objection 
of  Professor  Kirkwood. 

Professor  Newcomb  considers  that  the 
rings  were  all  thrown  off  together,  and  that 


1  9'>.  

—  1  J^O 

the  inner  and  smaller  bodies,  are,  if  any- 
thing, the  older. 

Faye  thinks  that  the  outer  planets  were 
formed  last. 

Thus,  it  appears  that  Laplace's  hypothesis 
is  far  from  being  established,  if  indeed,  it 
has  not  altogether  failed.  (The  Author's 
Astronomy,  Pages  234-244.) 

Scientists  should  above  all  things  avoid 
dogmatism,  and  this  particular!}^  in  regard 
to  those  sciences  which  are  in  their  infanc}^ 
The  Pentateuch  has  held  its  own  through 
all  the  ages,  has  won  the  reverence  of  all 
civilized  peoples  and  bears  the  seal  of  the 
approvement  of  a  great  nation.  Many  sci- 
ences, when  still  in  the  cradle,  seemed  to 
contradict  it,  which  afterwards,  when  better 
established,  were  found  to  be  in  perfect  ac- 
cord with  it.  So  that  when  Science  and 
Genesis  seem  to  clash,  let  us  not  pass  too 
rapid  a  judgment  against  an  old  friend,  but 
await  patiently  until  the  principles  of  science 
are  properly  classified  and  firmly  established. 


—  124  — 

Chapter  VIII. 

PROVIDENCE  IN  THE  WORLD. 

There  is  no  essential  contradiction  be- 
tween science  and  the  Bible.  Indeed  they 
sustain  each  other.  One  of  the  chief  aims 
of  the  Bible  is  to  teach  that  the  world  is 
under  the  guidance  of  a  benign  and  divine 
Providence.  The  Bible  teaches  that  God 
made  the  world  and  governs  it.  Science 
teaches  the  very  same  thing. 

A  very  cursory  study  of  the  material 
world  and  its  laws  suggests  to  the  observer 
the  unwearied  presence  of  a  wise  and  pre- 
siding Providence.  The  world  is  governed 
by  general  laws  which  are  fixed  and  con- 
stant. There  is  nothing  left  to  chance  in 
the  government  of  the  physical  universe. 

The  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis  regulates 
the  length  of  the  day,  its  revolution  around 
the  sun,  that  of  the  year,  and  the  oscillation 
of  its  polar  axis,  the  duration  of  the  seasons. 
Thus  the  motions  of  the  earth  occasion  the 
succession  of  days,  seasons  and  years ;  and 
these  motions  are  regulated  by  the  attraction 
of  the  solar  mass,  which  is  absolutely  invari- 
able in  its  action. 

Atmospheric  forces  and  the  weather  itself, 
apparently  so  capricious,  are  governed  by 
fixed  and  regular  laws  ;  the  heat  of  the  sun 


—  125  — 

being  the  chief  element  in  determining  the 
character  of  the  weather. 

Invariable  laws  likewise  govern  the  vital 
movements  of  animals  and  plants.  In  the 
nature  and  operation  of  these  laws  we  will 
find  upon  examination  the  reign  of  benevo- 
lence and  foresight,  and  so  will  be  moved  to 
admire  the  goodness  and  wisdom  of  the 
Almighty  Law-giver. 

"  When  we  speak  of  material  nature  as 
being  governed  by  LAWS,  it  is  sufficiently 
evident  that  we  use  the  term  in  a  manner 
somewhat  metaphorical.  The  laws  to  which 
man's  attention  is  primarily  directed,  are 
MORAL  laws  :  rules  laid  down  for  his  actions  ; 
rules  for  the  conscious  actions  of  a  person ; 
rules  which,  as  a  matter  of  possibility,  he 
may  obey,  or  may  transgress ;  the  latter 
event  being  combined,  not  with  an  impossi- 
bility, but  with  a  penalty.  But  the  Laws 
of  Nature  are  something  different  from 
this ;  they  are  rules  for  that  which  things 
are  to  do  and  suffer ;  and  this  by  no  con- 
sciousness or  will  of  theirs.  They  are  rules 
describing  the  mode  in  which  things  do  act ; 
they  are  invariably  obeyed ;  their  transgres- 
sion is  not  punished,  it  is  excluded.  The 
language  of  a  moral  law  is,  man  shall  not 
kill ;  the  language  of  a  Law  of  Nature  is,  a 
stone  WILL  fall  to  the  earth."     (Whewell). 

It  will   be  seen    by  observation  that  the 


—  126^ 

laws  of  nature  are  remarkably  adapted  to  the 
office  which  is  assigned  them  and  afford 
proof  of  selection,  design  and  goodness  in 
the  power  by  which  they  were  established. 

The  number  and  variety  of  nature's  laws 
are  great  indeed,  and  it  w^ould  be  futile  to 
attempt  their  examination  in  full  in  a  single 
chapter.  In  their  operations  they  are  com- 
bined and  intermixed  in  incalculable  and 
endless  complexity,  influencing  and  modify- 
ing each  other's  effects  in  every  direction. 
If  we  try  to  comprehend  at  once  the  whole 
of  the  complex  system,  we  find  ourselves 
utterly  baffled  by  its  extent  and  multiplicity. 
Still  so  far  as  we  consider  the  bearing  of  one 
part  upon  another,  we  receive  the  impres- 
sion of  adaptation,  purpose  and  provision. 

Let  us  then  consider  some  cases  in  which 
the  different  parts  of  the  universe  exhibit 
this  mutual  adaptation  and  thus  see  the  evi- 
dence of  Providence  and  Wisdom  which  the 
world  of  nature  affords.  The  idea  of  a  pre- 
serving and  contriving  mind  in  framing  the 
world  and  its  laws  will  spring  up  before  us 
when  we  see  the  correspondencies  which  exist 
ever}^ where  in  nature  between  the  qualities 
of  brute  matter  and  the  constitution  of  living 
beings,  between  the  tendency  to  derange- 
ment and  the  conservative  influences  by 
which  such  a  tendency  is  counteracted. 

We  will  find  a  general  agreement  between 


—  127  — 

tlie  nature  of  the  laws  which  govern  the  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  world.  Plants  and 
animals  have,  in  their  construction,  certain 
periodical  functions  which  have  a  reference 
to  alternations  of  heat  and  cold ;  the  length 
of  the  period  which  belongs  to  these  func- 
tions by  their  construction,  appears  to  be 
that  of  the  period  which  belongs  to  the 
actual  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  namely, 
a  year. 

Plants  and  animals  have  again  in  their 
construction  certain  other  periodical  func- 
tions, which  have  a  reference  to  alternations 
of  light  and  darkness  ;  the  length  of  the 
period  of  such  functions  appears  to  coincide 
with  the  natural  day. 

The  members  of  the  organic  world  are 
also  adapted  by  the  various  peculiarities  of 
their  construction  to  the  effects  of  gravit}^ 
on  the  air  and  moisture  and  other  elements 
which  it  controls. 

Creatures  are  created  on  a  plan  and  scale 
which  is  exactly  the  single  one  suited  to 
their  place  on  the  earth.  The  Creator  in 
producing  one  part  of  his  work  was  always 
mindful  of  the  other.  He  took  an  account 
of  the  weight  of  the  earth,  the  density  of 
the  air  and  the  measure  of  the  ocean  in  cre- 
ating living  beings.  He  did  not  cast  his 
living  creatures  into  the  world  to  prosper  or 
perish  as  they  might  find  it  suited  to  them 


—  128  — 

or  not ;  but  fitted  together,  with  the  nicest 
skill,  the  ^yorld  and  the  constitution  which 
he  gave  to  its  inhabitants.  Everything  has 
been  arranged  for  their  well-being. 

There  is  a  cycle  or  periodicity^  of  internal 
functions  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  that 
corresponds  exactly  to  the  length  of  a  year. 
The  length  of  the  year  is  so  determined  as 
to  be  adapted  to  the  constitution  of  most 
vegetables,  or  the  constitution  of  vegetables 
is  so  adjusted  as  to  be  suited  to  the  length 
the  year  has,  and  unsuited  to  a  duration 
longer  or  shorter  by  any  considerable  por- 
tion. The  vegetable  clock-work  is  set  for 
a  year. 

The  length  of  the  year  is  determined  by 
the  time  required  by  the  earth  to  perform  a 
revolution  around  the  sun.  If  we  suppose 
the  earth  to  be  placed  nearer  to  the  sun, 
such  as  in  the  case  of  the  planet  Venus,  or 
farther  away,  such  as  that  in  the  planet 
Mars,  the  length  of  our  year  would  be 
greatly  shortened  or  lengthened. 

A  change  of  this  kind  would  throw  our 
botanical  world  into  absolute  disorder.  The 
whole  vegetable  world,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  the  best  naturalists,  would  suffer 
rapid  extinction. 

The  function  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
has  a  periodicity  depending  on  the  length 
of   the  year.     The    appearance  of  fruit,  of 


—  120  — 

leaves  and  flowers,  the  flowing  of  sap  and 
other  vital  functions  depend  entirely  on  the 
duration  of  the  year.  If  it  were  radically 
changed  all  vegetables  would  die  and  disap- 
pear. Artificial  agencies  might  sufiice  for 
a  short  time.  But  ultimately  the  vegetable 
world  would  decay.  This  correspondence 
between  the  C3^cle  of  the  year  and  the  peri- 
odicity of  vital  functions  in  plants  is  not  the 
offspring  of  chance.  There  is  here  design, 
intention  and  wise  provision. 

The  periodicity  of  certain  functions  of 
plants  depends  on  the  length  of  the  day  or 
the  time  of  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 
The  opening  and  shutting  of  their  flowers 
by  certain  plants  and  other  physiological 
functions  are  regulated  by  the  length  of  the 
day  and  the  alternation  of  light  and  dark- 
ness. There  is  here  a  ph3^siological  period 
adapted  to  the  astronomical  period  of  twenty- 
four  hours. 

Jupiter's  day  is  about  ten  hours  and  the 
Moon's  day  more  than  twenty-nine  of  our 
days.  If  the  period  of  the  earth's  rotation 
v\^as  greatly  altered  it  would  be  very  detri- 
mental to,  if  not  destructive  of,  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  There  is  an  adaptation  between 
the  structure  of  plants  and  the  periodical 
order  of  light  and  darkness  resulting  from 
the  earth's  rotation,  which  it  would  be  un- 
philosophical  to  attribute  to  chance.     It  is 

9 


—  130  — 

no  other  than  a  wise  and  intentional  adjust- 
ment. 

The  great  physiologists  say  that  animals 
and  man  himself  have  a  period  in  their  func- 
tions regulated  by  the  duration  of  the  day. 
The  inclination  to  food  and  sleep  particu- 
larly depends  on  the  day's  length.  The 
day's  length  could  not  be  shortened  or 
lengthened  very  considerably  without  grave 
injury  to  many  vital  functions  of  animal  life. 

Again  the  intensity  of  the  force  of  gravity 
was  taken  into  account  in  the  establishing 
of  the  laws  governing  the  constant  motion 
of  the  fluid  parts  in  the  life  of  vegetables 
and  animals.  The  force  of  gravity  depends 
upon  the  mass  of  the  earth.  The  earth's 
mass  might  have  been  greater  than  Jupiter's 
or  less  than  Mercury's.  It  could  easily  have 
been  twelve  or  twenty  times  greater  than  it 
is.  That  would  mean  that  the  sap  could  no 
longer  flow  upwards  in  vegetables  and  that 
animal  motions  upon  the  earth  would  be  im- 
possible. 

The  sap  in  vegetables,  plants  and  trees 
flows  upwards  with  great  force.  A  vine  in 
the  bleeding  season  can  push  up  its  sap  in 
a  glass  tube  to  the  height  of  twenty-one  feet 
above  the  stump  of  an  amputated  branch. 
The  force  which  carries  up  this  sap  is  a 
mechanical  one  and  is  a  mixture  of  capillary 
attraction  and  endosmose. 


—  131  — 

Now  then,  we  find  on  the  earth  these  two 
forces  of  gravit}^  and  capillary  attraction 
perfectly  so  adjusted  to  one  another  as  is 
best  suited  to  the  best  welfare  of  vegetable 
life. 

There  are  many  other  functions  of  vege- 
tables too  numerous  to  mention  which  are 
regulated  by  and  dependent  upon  the  amount 
of  the  force  of  gravity  of  the  earth. 

In  the  muscular  powers  of  animals  is 
found  another  instance  of  the  adjustment 
of  organic  structure  to  the  force  of  gravity. 
If  gravity  on  the  earth's  surface  was  very 
much  greater  than  it  is,  animals  could 
scarcely  crawl  on  the  earth's  surface  and 
the}^  would  be  overpowered  by  the  increased 
weight  of  the  atmosphere. 

If  the  force  was  very  much  less,  there 
would  be  no  steadiness  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face, bodies  would  slide  along  with  the  slight- 
est push  and  respiration  would  be  impossible 
owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  air. 

The  structure  of  organized  beings  had 
also  to  be  adapted  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
ocean.  Laplace  placed  the  average  depth  of 
the  ocean  at  five  miles.  Recent  computa- 
tions have  placed  it  at  three  miles.  An  ad- 
dition to  the  ocean  of  one  half  of  the  present 
waters  would  drown  the  globe  and  make  the 
surface  of  the  earth  similar  to  that  of  the 
planet  Mars. 


.32  — 


If  the  amount  of  the  waters  were  decreased 
materially,  the  average  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  air  would  be  so  diminished  that  the 
nature  of  our  climates  would  be  radically 
changed. 

The  quantity  of  the  atmosphere  had  to  be 
regarded  and  be  adjusted  to  organized  beings, 
plants  and  animals.  If  the  quantity  of  the 
air  were  considerably  greater  than  now,  its 
pressure  would  be  detrimental  to  present  or- 
ganized life.  Not  only  that,  but  everything 
during  a  tempest  would  be  swept  clean 
around  the  Avorld.  Nothing  could  stand. 
If  much  less,  there  would  be  no  respiration 
possible,  owing  to  the  rarity  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  the  pres- 
ent vegetable  kingdom  the  constancy  of 
climate  at  the  same  place  is  a  necessary  con- 
dition for  the  welfare  of  the  vegetable  species 
fixed  there.  The  climate  may  and  does  vary 
-in  different  parts  of  the  earth,  but  in  the 
same  place  from  year  to  year  the  mean  annu- 
al heat  and  cold,  cloud,  sunshine,  wand,  calm, 
and  other  atmospheric  conditions  are  the 
same.  There  may  be  a  very  hot  season  or 
a  very  cold  season,  but  the  yearly  average 
always  remains  the  same. 

Had  the  earth  an  eccentric  elliptical  orbit, 
such  as  that  of  a  comet,  there  would  be  no 
evenness  in  the  climate  of  any  place  on  its 


—  133  — 

surface.  The  heat  and  cold  would  always 
be  changing  and  varying  from  extremes  of 
heat  to  extremes  of  cold  and  the  composition 
of  the  atmosphere  would  be  changed  by  the 
condensation  of  some  of  its  gases  by  cold. 
This  would  be  absolutely  fatal  to  vegetable 
life  as  we  know  it.  Indeed  an  average  an- 
nual change  of  five  degrees  would  kill  all 
the  vegetables  now  growing  on  our  planet. 

There  are  mau}^  varieties  of  climate  on 
the  earth,  and  we  find  that  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms  are  fitted  for  that  vari- 
ety in  which  they  are  located.  Every  zone 
of  the  earth  has  its  peculiar  vegetables. 
The  tropics  have  their  own  vegetables,  the 
temperate  zones  their  own,  and  the  frozen 
zones  of  the  poles  their  own.  Each  species 
is  exactly  suited  to  its  own  surroundings 
and  the  nature  of  its  climate.  We  have 
thus  a  variety  in  the  laws  of  vegetable  or- 
ganization well  adapted  to  the  variety  of 
climates ;  and  by  this  adaptation  the  globe 
is  clothed  with  vegetation  and  peopled  with 
animals  from  pole  to  pole,  while  without 
such  an  adjustment  vegetable  and  animal 
life  must  have  been  confined  entirety  to 
some  narrow  strip  of  the  earth's  surface. 
This  is  a  wise  dispensation  of  providence 
to  diffuse  life  and  well-being  over  the  whole 
earth.  Man  is  made  for  the  whole  earth 
and  adjusted  to  every  climate,  so  that  wher- 


—  134  — 

ever  he  wanders  and  sojourns  on  the  globe 
he  will  find  a  plenteous  support. 

The  average  of  the  climate  is  constant  at 
each  place,  but  this  average  differs  at  differ- 
ent places.  Many  elements  combine  to  pro- 
duce the  climate :  The  temperature  of  the 
earth,  the  air,  and  the  water ;  the  amount  of 
watery  vapor  in  the  atmosphere ;  together 
with  the  winds  and  rains  which  control  the 
equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere.  The  effect 
of  light  and  electricity  must  also  be  con- 
sidered. 

The  mass  of  the  earth  is  so  constituted 
that  it  is  slow  to  conduct  heat  and  conse- 
quently slow  to  radiate  it.  If  it  were  differ- 
ently constituted,  it  might  conduct  and 
radiate  heat  very  rapidly  and  thus  the  earth's 
surface  v/ould  be  entirely  unbearable  to  ani- 
mals and  vegetables  as  now  constructed. 

Water  is  heated  differently  from  solids. 
Solids  are  heated  by  conduction  but  water 
by  convection.  Water  when  heated  expands 
and  becomes  lighter  and  the  light  water 
ascends  and  the  cool  water  descends.  Thus 
water  is  heated  by  a  series  of  contrary  cur- 
rents, heated  water  ascending,  and  cold  water 
descending.  When  water  reaches  a  certain 
coldness  it  congeals  and  becomes  ice.  We 
have  said  that  heated  water  is  lighter  than 
cold  water,  and  that  cold  water  descends  to 
the  bottom  of  lake  and  river.     Now,  if  this 


— 135  — 

law  continued  to  be  strictly  true  wlien  ice 
would  be  once  formed  in  lakes  and  rivers 
they  would  remain  frozen  for  all  time.  The 
small  amount  of  the  surface  that  would  be 
thawed  in  summer,  would  again  freeze  im- 
mediately at  the  first  touch  of  winter  and 
the  waters  of  the  earth  would  be  forever  a 
mass  of  ice.  Besides  destro^dng  all  fish  life 
it  would  be  very  detrimental  in  many  other 
respects  to  the  creatures  of  the  earth. 

There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  this 
law.  Water  grows  heavy  and  contracts 
with  cold  until  we  reach  40°  Fahrenheit. 
After  that,  cold  makes  it  expand  and  grow 
light.  Ice  is  lighter  than  water  and  will 
float  on  the  surface.  So  that  when  water 
nears  the  freezing  point  it  ascends  to  the 
surface  and  remains  on  top  and  the  freezing 
of  the  great  bodies  of  water  is  averted. 
Here  is  a  violation  of  a  law  which  must  be 
attributed  to  a  great  intervention  of  provi- 
dence. 

Most  bodies,  and  particularly  the  metals 
are  heavier  in  the  solid  than  liquid  state 
and  the  solid  will  sink  in  the  liquid.  There 
is  thus  a  most  beneficial  exception  in  the 
case  of  water. 

When  water  is  highly  heated  it  rises  in 
vapor.  We  all  know  the  beneficial  effects 
of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere. 

When  we  heat  ice  to  produce  water  the 


—  136  — 

change  is  very  slow  and  gradual.  The  heat 
becomes  latent  until  the  whole  mass  reaches 
the  same  temperature.  The  same  is  true 
when  water  is  changed  into  steam.  Other- 
wise all  ice  would  melt  instantaneously  at 
the  first  touch  of  summer  and  produce  awful 
torrents  to  sweep  everything  from  the  earth's 
surface.  When  sufficient  heat  would  be  ap- 
plied to  water  it  would  also  all  instantane- 
ously flash  into  steam.  The  slow  and  grad- 
ual change  is  really  a  violation  of  a  law. 
Can  anyone  doubt  that  this  violation  was  or- 
dained by  a  wise  and  beneficent  Providence  ? 
Moisture  in  the  air  is  very  beneficial. 
But  if  the  atmosphere  were  composed  en- 
tirel}^  of  aqueous  vapor  the  consequences 
would  be  fatal  to  the  well-being  of  animals 
and  plants.  The  waters  near  the  equator, 
owing  to  the  great  heat  of  these  regions, 
would  rise  in  steam.  This  steam  would 
have  great  rarity  and  elasticit}^  It  would 
flow  towards  the  cold  polar  regions  and  be 
precipitated  as  rain  and  snow.  The  sky  of 
the  equator  would  be  cloudless,  but  in  other 
latitudes  there  would  be  an  unbroken  shroud 
of  clouds,  fogs,  rains  and  snows.  It  is  a 
blessed  thing  for  animal  and  vegetable  life 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  atmosphere  is 
composed  of  common  air,  a  perfectly  elastic 
fluid  that  cannot  be  condensed  by  cold  or 
ordinary  pressure.      Air    and    water    vapor 


—  16i  — 

combine  to  give  the  air  better  properties 
than  either  has  alone.  These  two  atmos- 
pheres of  steam  and  air  are  constantly 
heating  and  cooling  each  other  to  the  great 
benefit  of  plants  and  animals.  The  mix- 
ture of  these  two  gases  having  different 
capacities  for  heat  causes  a  constant  upward 
and  downward  circulation  of  currents. 

The  most  violent  changes  of  weather, 
tempests  and  torrents,  are  oscillations  about 
the  average  condition  belonging  to  each 
place.  The  greatest  oscillations  are  limited 
and  transient.  In  the  forces  that  produce 
any  derangement  of  the  weather  there  is  a 
provision  for  making  it  short  and  moderate. 
This  is  a  wise  and  thoughtful  provision,  as 
the  mechanical  laws  of  the  atmosphere  might 
have  been  such  as  to  produce  complete  dis- 
order and  irregularity  of  the  weather  once 
the  equilibrium  becomes  disturbed. 

Electricity  and  magnetism,  present  in  the 
earth  and  atmosphere,  have  their  beneficial 
effects  upon  plant  and  animal  life.  The 
great  magnetic  and  electric  storms,  too,  help 
to  purify  the  air  and  are  of  great  benefit  in 
preserving  it  from  corruption. 

Light  is  as  necessary  for  the  well-being 
of  plants  ordinarily  as  air  or  moisture.  De- 
prived of  light  they  may  last  for  a  time,  but 
gradually  the  green  or  chlorofile  disappears 
and  white  takes  its  place. 


~  138  — 

The  chief  effects  of  light  regard  the 
leaves.  Under  the  influence  of  light  the 
leaves  of  plants  take  carbonic  acid  from  the 
air,  appropriate  the  carbon,  and  set  free 
sweet  oxygen.  Remove  light  and  this  proc- 
ess ceases,  indeed,  carbonic  acid  is  given  off 
from  the  leaves  instead  of  being  imbibed. 

An  important  office  of  the  air  is  the  con- 
duction of  sound.  In  order  that  sound  ma}^ 
fulfill  its  purpose  in  the  econoni}^  of  animal 
and  human  life  it  must  have  certain  proper- 
ties depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  air, 
such  as  differences  of  loudness,  pitch,  quality 
and  articulation.  It  was  indeed  by  a  refined 
and  skillful  adaptation  applied  with  a  wise 
design  that  the  air  was  made  capable  of 
conve3ang  these  differences  at  the  same 
time,  that  the  organs  were  made  fit  to  pro- 
duce them.  Certainly  a  wise  intelligence 
must  have  adapted  the  organism  of  the  ear 
to  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  Atmosphere. — The  atmosphere  con- 
sidered as  a  v/hole  with  its  combined  uses  is 
truly  w^onderful.  It  diffuses  and  tempers 
the  heat  of  different  climates.  By  a  con- 
stant circulation  of  the  watery  part  of  the 
atmosphere  between  its  upper  and  lower 
regions  it  is  the  means  of  forming  clouds 
and  rain.  The  blowing  of  winds  from  all 
quarters  perpetually  restores  the  equilibri- 
um of  heat  and  moisture.     It  is  everywhere 


—  139  — 

present  and  almost  uniform  in  its  qnantity, 
and  it  is  the  most  important  material  of 
the  growth  and  sustenance  of  plants  and 
animals.  It  is  a  means  of  communication 
between  intelligent  beings  by  being  a  medi- 
um of  the  propagation  of  sound  waves.  It 
is  scarcely  ever  in  the  wa}- .  We  put  forth 
our  hand  and  push  it  aside  without  being 
even  aware  that  it  is  near  us.  Without  air 
we  should  see  nothing,  except  objects  on 
which  the  sun's  ra3^s  fell,  directly  or  by  re- 
flection. It  is  the  air  that  converts  sun- 
beams into  da3dight,  it  diffuses  light  and 
fills  the  space  in  which  we  are  with  illumi- 
nation. 

Again  the  atmosphere  is  so  organized  that 
the  ratio  of  its  mau}^  ingredients  has  been 
preserved  through  all  geological  time,  al- 
though circumstances  might  seem  to  point 
to  a  profound  instability  in  their  relations 
to  each  other.  One  of  the  ingredients  in 
the  air  is  carbonic  acid  gas  or  carbon  diox- 
ide. Its  presence  in  the  atmosphere  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
organic  life,  as  the  plants  depend  upon  it 
for  their  sustenance.  To  serve  its  purpose 
in  the  air  it  should  exist  in  a  certain  pro- 
portion only  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  at- 
mosphere. This  proportion  must  be  not 
less  than  the  one  thousandth  and  not  more 
than  the  one  hundredth  of  the  atmospheric 


—  140  — 

mass.  If  the  amount  of  this  gas  should 
become  much  less  than  it  now  is,  vegetable 
life  would  cease;  if  much  greater  animal 
life  would  disappear.  Now  it  is  a  well 
known  fact  and  admitted  by  geologists  that 
more  than  one  hundred  times  as  much  car- 
bon has  passed  through  the  air  into  the 
strata  of  the  earth's  crust  since  organic  life 
began  on  the  globe  than  has  at  any  time 
existed  in  the  atmospheric  envelope.  There 
must  be  skillful  design  here  to  preserve  this 
very  nice  and  accurate  adjustment  through 
such  an  extraordinarily  long  interval  and 
under  such  a  great  variety  of  changes. 

The  atmosphere  is  chiefly  composed  of 
the  two  gases,  Oxygen  and  Nitrogen,  mixed 
together  in  the  proportion  of  twenty-one 
parts  of  Ox3^gen  to  seventy-nine  of  Nitro- 
gen. The  other  ingredients  of  the  air,  but 
in  relatively  very  much  smaller  proportions, 
are  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor,  with 
traces  of  ammonia,  carburetted  hydrogen, 
the  odoriferous  matter  of  flowers  and  other 
volatile  substances. 

In  the  atmosphere  the  Oxygen  and  Nitro- 
gen are  not  chemically  combined,  but  merely 
mechanically  mixed.  Although  in  the  at- 
mosphere Oxygen  and  Nitrogen  are  simply 
mixed  together,  yet  they  are  found  in  nature 
chemical^  united  in  five  different  combina- 
tions.     Nitric  acid  or  "  Aqua  P^ortis,"  the 


—  141  — 

source  whence  all  the  other  compounds  of 
these  two  gases  are  obtained,  is  a  most  deadly 
poison.  If  they  were  chemically  combined 
in  the  atmosphere  instead  of  being  mixed 
mechanically,  no  animal  life  would  be  possi- 
ble on  the  earth's  surface. 

Nitrogen  seems  to  be  present  in  the  air 
solely  to  dilute  the  Oxygen.  If  Oxygen 
prevailed  in  the  atmosphere  in  much  greater 
proportion  than  it  now  does,  animals  would 
live  too  rapidly  and  soon  expire  and  com- 
bustion would  be  supported  too  fiercely  and 
everything  inflammable  on  the  whole  globe 
would  soon  be  consumed. 

All  the  ingredients  of  the  air  are  of  differ- 
ent specific  gravities,  and  really,  in  obedience 
to  the  laws  of  gravitation,  should  lie  in 
layers  or  strata  at  distances  from  the  earth 
corresponding  to  their  separate  densities 
and  float  one  upon  another  as  oil  and  water 
do  when  mingled. 

According  to  the  universal  law  of  gravity 
the  carbonic  acid,  being  much  heavier  than 
the  other  gases,  should  lie  in  a  layer  at  the 
bottom  of  the  atmosphere  and  just  over  the 
earth's  surface.  It  is  computed  that  if  all 
the  carbonic  acid  were  gathered  together  in 
the  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere  it  would 
form  a  stratum  completely  around  the  earth 
just  thirteen  feet  high.     Were  this  the  case, 


—  142  — 

as  it  should  be  if  tliis  universal  law  were 
obe3^ed,  all  animals  would  perish. 

The  deadly  effects  of  too  great  an  abun- 
dance of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  air  is  easily 
demonstrated.  There  is  a  valley  in  the 
island  of  Java  where  the  soil  emits  so  much 
of  this  acid  that  no  animal  can  live  there, 
and  the  birds  that  try  to  fly  through  it,  fall 
down  dead.  There  is  a  grotto  at  Pozzuolo, 
near  Naples,  into  which  a  man  can  v^alk 
without  injury,  but  in  the  atmosphere  of 
which  a  dog  becomes  immediately  asphixi- 
ated.  The  heav}^  gas  emitted  from  the  soil 
lies  near  the  surface ;  the  man  escapes  it, 
but  the  dog  inhales  it  with  deadly  effects. 

Because,  however,  of  a  violation  of  the 
universal  law  of  gravity  in  the  case  of  min- 
gling gases,  when  tw^o  gases  of  different 
specific  gravities  are  mixed  together,  they 
cannot  remain  separate,  as  fluids  of  differ- 
ent densities  do,  but  diffuse  themselves  uni- 
formly throughout  the  whole  space  which 
both  occupy.  Hence  the  composition  of 
the  air,  wherever  examined,  over  level  plains 
or  on  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  mountains  is 
found  to  never  vary. 

Here  again  is  a  palpable  violation  of  a 
most  universal  law  for  a  most  beneficent 
purpose. 

Light. — As  the  eye  is  made  for  light,  so 
light   must  have   been    made  among  other 


—  143  — 

ends  for  the  eye.  Reflection  and  refraction 
are  indispensable  properties  of  light;  and  it 
appears  that  it  was  necessary  that  light 
should  possess  such  properties  in  order  that 
it  might  form  a  medium  of  communication 
between  man  and  the  external  world.  Its 
power  of  passing  through  transparent  media 
as  the  air  is  given  it  in  order  that  it  might 
enlighten  the  earth ;  its  propert}^  of  reflection 
to  make  colors  visible ;  and  that  of  refrac- 
tion that  it  might  enable  the  eye  through 
its  lenses  and  humors  to  discriminate  figures 
and  position. 

Heat. — The  matter  of  heat  is  certainly-  a 
most  vital  one  for  the  well-being  of  organ- 
ized life  on  the  earth.  A  certain  limited 
range  of  temperature  must  be  maintained 
upon  the  earth's  surface  to  make  living  or- 
ganisms possible.  The  nicety  and  delicacy 
of  the  adjustment  necessar}^  to  sustain  this 
limited  range  may  be  perceived  when  we 
consider  the  vast  range  in  heat  within  the 
solar  system.  The  temperature  of  the  sun 
is  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  million  degrees 
Fahr.,  that  of  the  earth's  interior  probably 
above  ten  thousand  degrees,  and  that  of 
space  four  hundred  degrees  Fahr.  below  zero. 

In  this  great  scale  of  heat,  organic  life 
can  occupy  only  the  narrow  space  of  about 
one  hundred  degrees,  from  zero  to  lOO,  or 


—  144  — 

about  the  ten  thousandth  part  of  the  heat 
variation  afforded  bv  the  solar  scheme. 

Let  us  take  a  line  a  million  inches  or  i6 
miles  long  and  let  each  inch  represent  one 
degree  Fahr.  of  heat.  If  on  that  line  8  ft. 
of  space  be  marked  off  near  one  end,  this 
trifling  part  of  the  whole  length  will  give 
us  a  representation  of  the  proportions  be- 
tween the  temperatures  of  the  solar  system 
and  those  in  which  organic  life  can  be  main- 
tained. Should  the  heat  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face be  materially  changed  from  this  narrow 
limit,  the  destruction  of  organic  life  would 
soon  follow.  But  we  know  from  fossils  and 
other  indices  that  organic  life  has  existed 
on  the  earth  during  all  geological  time.  So 
that  during  this  vast  period  of  time  this 
delicate  range  of  temperature  has  been  won- 
derfull}^  maintained  amidst  every  fluctuation 
of  circumstances. 

Could  blind  chance  unerringly  select  this 
one  condition  of  a  possible  ten  thousand? 
It  would  be  folly  to  think  so. 

Looking  around  us  on  the  earth  and  see- 
ing every  available  point  on  its  surface,  the 
spaces  of  air,  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  the 
darkness  of  caverns  and  the  surfaces  of 
snow-fields  teeming  with  life,  it  might  ap- 
pear to  us  that  life  has  a  pov/er  to  maintain 
itself  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions, 
but  when  we  really  compare  this  little  dot 


—  145  — 

of  an  area  occupied  b}^  organic  life  with  the 
extent  of  the  solar  system  alone,  it  would 
appear  insignificant.  Even  scientists  who 
deny  a  special  creation  of  organisms  admit 
that  the  bare  existence  of  life  depending 
upon  conditions  so  limited,  is  a  miracle. 
Since  the  beginning  of  geological  times, 
there  has  in  all  probability  never  been  a 
time  when  at  the  height  of  six  miles  above 
the  earth's  surface,  even  over  the  equator 
the  heat  necessary  for  animal  and  plant  life 
has  existed. 

On  the  different  planets  as  on  the  earth, 
life  is  limited  to  those  w^orlds  where  a  tem- 
perature a  little  above  the  freezing  and 
below  the  boiling  point  of  water  is  main- 
tained. This  is  of  absolute  necessity  seeing 
that  solar  irradiation  is  essential  to  the  sus- 
tenance of  organic  life.  In  the  face  of  this 
condition  animal  life  is  not  possible  in  the 
other  planets  of  our  system.  The  outer 
planets  are  partially  in  a  glowing  condition 
and  too  hot  for  life.  The  heat  of  Mercury 
and  Venus  is  too  great,  and  their  climatic 
vicissitudes  too  sudden  and  violent,  and 
Mars  entirely  too  cold,  for  the  existence  of 
life.  We  have  the  testimony  of  Linnaeus 
that  no  vegetable  could  live  on  Mars,  owing 
to  its  coldness  and  the  extreme  length  of 
its  year. 

Thus  organic  life  is  necessaril}^  limited  to 

10 


—  He- 
art almost  inconceivably  small  part  of  the 
space  and  mass  of  the  visible  universe,  and 
also  to  what  we  may  fairly  term  compara- 
tively a  moment  of  time.  To  select  the  best 
in  every  instance,  and  out  of  such  a  vast 
number  of  possible  conditions,  argues  a  de- 
signing mind  of  infinite  wisdom  and  fore- 
sight. 

Stability  of  the  Solar  System. — The 
orbit  or  path  of  the  earth  around  the  sun 
is  almost  a  circle.  This  is  important  and 
cannot  be  due  to  chance.  When  a  body  is 
projected  into  space  in  the  sun's  neighbor- 
hood, it  will  form  an  orbit  around  the  sun 
of  some  kind.  If  we  suppose  the  matter 
left  to  chance,  it  would  be  infinitely  against 
the  circle,  as  there  is  but  one  circle  and  a 
possible  infinite  number  of  ellipses  or  ovals. 
The  orbits  of  all  the  other  planets,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  smallest.  Mars  and 
Mercury,  are  almost  circular.  This  cannot 
be  chance.  Mercury  and  Mars  being  small 
bodies,  the  ellipticity  of  their  orbits  can  do 
no  injury  to  the  system.  If  the  orbits  of 
the  great  planets  had  this  ellipticity  the 
whole  solar  scheme  would  fall  to  pieces. 
The  stability  of  the  scheme  is  not  due  to 
chance,  but  to  wise  design  and  intelligent 
adjustment. 

If  the  paths  of  the  planets  were  drawn  on 
a  small  scale,  as  upon  a  large  board,  they 


—  147  — 

would  be  absolutely  perfect  circles.  This 
utterly  precludes  the  action  of  chance  in 
their  formation.  Chance  could  no  more  do  it 
than  the  accidental  dashes  of  a  brush  in  the 
hands  of  a  blind  man  would  make  on  a  wall 
eight  perfectly  concentric  circles.  More- 
over, if  the  earth's  orbit  was  much  more 
elliptical  than  it  is,  such,  for  instance,  that 
the  diameter  would  be  as  four  to  one,  the 
inequality  of  heat  on  the  earth's  surface  at 
different  times  w^ould  be  so  great  as  to  de- 
stroy all  living  creatures. 

"Of  all  the  innumerable  possible  cases  of 
systems,  governed  by  the  existing  laws  of 
force  and  motion,  that  one  is  selected  which 
alone  produces  such  steadfast  periodicit}', 
such  a  constant  average  of  circumstances  as 
are,  so  far  as  conceivable,  necessary  condi- 
tions, for  the  existence  of  organic  and  sen- 
tient life."     (Whewell). 

Stability  of  the  Ocean. — The  stability 
of  the  ocean  is  another  instance  of  the  wise 
care  of  the  Creator.  The  density  of  the 
earth  is  5.55  times  that  of  water  and  this 
establishes  the  stability  of  the  seas.  If  the 
density  of  the  earth  were  equal  to  Saturn's, 
which  is  less  than  a  seventh  part  of  the 
earth's,  there  w^ould  be  an  unstable  equilibri- 
um of  the  ocean,  and  the  waters  would  rush  to 
one  side  of  the  earth,  completely  deluging  it. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  hypotheses  ac- 


—  148  — 

counting  for  the  present  scheme  of  worlds 
around  us,  is  the  Nebular.  It  carries  us 
back,  according  to  its  famous  author,  to  a 
distant  period  when  there  existed  in  space 
a  boundless  abyss  of  luminous  matter  so 
rare  as  to  be  barely  existing.  But  who 
placed  this  luminous  matter  in  space,  and 
who  gave  it  kiminosity?  Who  gave  light 
and  matter  their  salutary  properties,  so  that 
this  vapor  should  condense  into  beautiful 
planets  and  a  bright  central  sun,  instead  of 
dark  and  barren  stones  ?  Certainly  an  all- 
wise  Creator. 

In  the  mechanical  laws  governing  the 
universe  of  matter,  we  see  wise  design  and 
provision  for  the  w^elfare  and  stability  of 
the  system.  The  laws  of  gravitation  might 
be  different  and  subvertive  even.  The  law 
of  gravitation  is  that  matter  attracts  in  pro- 
portion to  its  mass  and  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.  Every  particle  of 
matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every  other 
inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 
This  attraction  as  the  inverse  square  of  the 
distance  seems  the  best  and  wisest  for  the 
preservation  of  our  system  of  an  innumer- 
able number  of  other  possible  laws.  If  the 
attraction  were  directly  as  the  distance,  the 
earth  would  lose  its  attraction  for  bodies  on 
its  own  surface,  owing  to  the  great  mass  of 
the  sun  and  the  other  planets.     A  body  re- 


—  149  — 

ceiving  the  slightest  impulse,  would  sweep 
around  the  earth  perpetually  as  a  satellite. 
Motion  on  the  earth's  surface  would  be  im- 
possible. 

If  the  law  had  been  inversely  as  the  4th, 
5th,  6th  power  and  so  on,  the  earth's  path 
about  the  sun  would  be  a  spiral,  and  it 
would  be  constantly  either  advancing  or  re- 
ceding from  the  central  luminar3\  Indeed 
if  any  other  laws  of  gravity  had  been  adapt- 
ed by  the  Creator  besides  the  present  ones, 
the  earth's  path  would  be  constantly  chang- 
ing to  the  great  detriment  of  creatures  and 
all  regularity  would  be  lost. 

Gravitation  itself  is  not  necessarily  an 
essential  propert}^  of  matter  in  the  same 
sense  as  inertia,  extension,  mobilit}^  and 
impenetrability.  Now  if  matter  had  not 
received  this  universal  but  not  necessary 
property,  what  would  become  of  our  s^^stem 
of  worlds  ? 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the 
mechanical  laws  of  gravity  and  motion  is 
their  great  simplicity. 

In  the  laws  of  motion  we  see  ver}^  striking 
design.  The  first  law  of  motion  or  inertia 
is  that  a  body  will  perpetually  remain  in  a 
state  of  motion  or  rest,  unless  acted  upon 
by  some  extraneous  force.  There  might 
have  been  a  hundred  laws  instead  of  this 
simple  one.     The  most  perfect  instance  of 


—  150  — 

this  law  is  tlie  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis.  The  duration  of  this  rotation  has  not 
changed  the  hundredth  part  of  a  second  in 
historic  times.  If  this  law  had  been  differ- 
ent, the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
would  grow  slower  and  slower,  its  revolu- 
tion around  the  sun  would  become  gradual^ 
less  rapid,  all  motions  would  cease  and  soon 
ever}^  thing  would  come  to  rest.  This 
beautiful  law  is  evidently  a  wise  design  of 
Providence. 

Another  most  beneficial  property  of  mat- 
ter is  friction.  Without  friction  we  neither 
could  stand  nor  walk,  nor  sit  steadily,  every- 
thing would  be  constantly  sliding  on  the 
earth's  surface,  all  would  be  in  a  condition 
of  unstable  equilibrium.  Though  friction 
is  universal,  yet  it  is  not  necessarily  a 
property  of  matter.  Friction  does  not  stop 
the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Thus 
where  friction  is  beneficial  as  on  the  earth's 
surface  it  is  active,  where  it  would  be  pre- 
judicial as  in  the  heavens  it  is  absent. 

The  structure  of  man,  of  itself  so  nicel}^ 
and  wisely  adjusted  to  the  inorganic  laws 
and  elements  around  him,  and  particularl}- 
that  of  his  senses,  is  certainly  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  a  most  beneficent  Provi- 
dence. If  man's  material  parts  speak  of  his 
Creator's    wise   foresight    and    beneficence, 


—  151  — 

how  much  more  strongly  do  his  moral  and 
intellectual  parts,  his  mind  and  conscience? 

The  omnipotence  of  the  Creator  is  shown 
in  the  vastness  of  the  universe.  The  tele- 
scope discerns  in  both  hemispheres  nearly 
one  hundred  millions  of  suns,  each  of  them, 
we  know  by  analogy,  is  accompanied  by 
man}^  planets  and  satellites  and  3''et  space 
is  so  extensive,  that  it  appears  to  be  prac- 
tically empty.  It  would  require  light  travel- 
ing at  the  rate  of  185,000  miles  a  second, 
three  years  and  seven  months  to  journey 
from  the  nearest  fixed  star. 

The  microscope  shows  infinity  in  another 
direction,  in  smallness.  A  single  drop  of 
pond  water  contains  a  score  of  living  beings 
moving  with  prodigious  velocity  and  all 
having  perfectly  organized  systems. 

The  awful  rapidity  of  the  motions  of  the 
earth,  the  planets  and  the  other  heavenly 
bodies  gives  us  another  idea  of  the  vastness 
of  the  world.  The  earth's  motion  of  revo- 
lution around  the  sun,  19  miles  a  second,  is 
65  times  greater  than  the  highest  velocity  • 
of  a  cannon  ball.  Others  of  the  heavenl}^ 
bodies  move  more  rapidly  still.  The  veloci- 
ty of  a  comet  in  its  perihelion  swoop  around 
the  sun  reaches  300  miles  a  second. 

Who  then,  may  we  ask,  gave  matter  and 
its  elements  their  properties  and  laws? 
May  we  not  confidently  reply,  God? 


— 152  — 

"  The  laws  of  material  nature  operate  at 
all  times  and  in  all  places.  But  a  law  sup- 
poses an  agent  and  a  power,  for  it  is  the 
mode  according  to  which  the  agent  pro- 
ceeds, the  order  according  to  which  the 
power  acts.  Without  the  presence  of  such 
an  agent,  of  such  a  power,  conscious  of  the 
relations  on  which  the  law  depends,  pro- 
ducing the  effects  which  the  law  prescribes, 
the  law  can  have  no  efi&cacy,  no  existence." 
(Whewell). 

The  greatest  and  wisest  of  modern  scien- 
tists have  acknowledged  in  unmistakable 
language  the  guiding  hand  of  an  all-wise 
personal  Creator  and  Governor  in  the  world. 

"  Who  in  this  fair  temple  would  place 
this  lamp  (the  sun)  in  any  other  or  better 
place,  than  there  whence  it  may  illuminate 
the  whole  ?  We  find  then  under  this  ordi- 
nation an  admirable  symmetry  of  the  world 
and  a  certain  harmonious  connection  of  the 
motion  and  magnitude  of  the  orbs,  such  as 
in  any  other  way  cannot  be  found.  Thus 
the  progressions  and  regressions  of  the 
planets  all  arise  from  the  same  cause,  the 
motion  of  the  earth.  And  that  no  such 
movements  are  seen  in  the  fixed  stars,  ar- 
gues their  immense  distance  from  us,  which 
causes  the  apparent  magnitude  of  the  earth's 
annual  course  to  become  evanescent.  So 
great,  in  short,  is  this  divine  fabric  of  the 


—  153  — 

great  and  good  God  ;  this  best  and  useful 
artificer  of  the  universe."  (Copernicus  Lib. 
I,  c.  x). 

^'  I  beseech  my  reader,  that  not  unmind- 
ful of  the  divine  goodness  bestowed  on  man, 
he  do  with  me  praise  and  celebrate  the  wis- 
dom and  greatness  of  the  Creator,  w^hich  I 
open  to  him  from  a  more  inward  explication 
of  the  form  of  the  world,  from  a  searching 
of  causes,  from  a  detection  of  the  errors  of 
vision  :  and  that  thus,  not  only  in  the  firm- 
ness and  stability  of  the  earth,  he  perceive 
with  gratitude  the  preservation  of  all  living 
things  in  nature  as  the  gift  of  God,  but 
also  that  in  its  motion,  so  recondite,  so  ad- 
mirable, he  acknowledges  the  wisdom  of  the 
Creator.  But  him  who  is  too  dull  to  receive 
this  science,  or  too  weak  to  believe  the 
Copernican  system  without  harm  to  his 
piet}^,  him,  I  say,  I  advise  that,  leaving  the 
school  of  astronomy,  and  condemning,  if  he 
please,  any  doctrines  of  the  philosophers,  he 
follow  his  own  path,  and  desist  from  his 
wandering  through  the  universe,  and  lifting 
up  his  natural  eyes,  with  which  alone  he 
can  see,  pour  himself  out  from  his  own 
heart  in  praise  of  God,  the  Creator;  being 
certain  that  he  gives  no  less  worship  to  God 
than  the  astronomer,  to  whom  God  has 
given,. to  see  more  clearly  with  his  inward 
eye,  and  wdio,  for  what  he  has  himself  dis- 


—  154  — 

covered,   both  can   and   will    glorify  God." 
(Kepler). 

"This  beautiful  system  of  sun,  planets 
and  comets,  could  have  its  origin  in  no 
other  way  than  by  the  purpose  and  com- 
mand of  an  intelligent  and  powerful  Being. 
He  governs  all  things,  not  as  the  soul  of  the 
world,  but  as  the  Lord  of  the  universe.  He 
is  not  only  God,  but  Lord  or  Governor. 
We  know  him  only  by  his  properties  and 
attributes,  by  the  wise  and  admirable  struc- 
ture of  things  around  us,  and  by  their  final 
causes ;  we  admire  him  on  account  of  his 
perfections,  we  venerate  and  worship  him 
on  account  of  his  government."  (Newton, 
Principia.) 

Copernicus,  Kepler,  and  Newton  are  the 
great  names  which  mark  the  progress  of 
astronomy. 

"  While  it  is  permitted  us  to  speculate 
concerning  the  constitution  of  the  world,  we 
are  also  taught,  perhaps  in  order  that  the 
activit}^  of  the  human  mind  ma}^  not  pause 
or  languish,  that  our  powers  do  not  enable 
us  to  comprehend  the  w^orks  of  His  hands. 
May  success  therefore  attend  this  intellectual 
exercise,  thus  permitted  and  appointed  for 
us;  by  which  we  recognize  and  admire  the 
greatness  of  God  the  more,  in  proportion 
as  we  find  ourselves  the  less  able  to  pene- 


— 155  — 

trate  the  profound  abysses  of  His  wisdom." 
(Galileo,  Dialogues). 

Galileo  was  the  discoverer  of  the  laws  of 
motion,  the  founder  of  modern  mechanics 
and  the  father  of  experimental  philosophy. 

^'  Nature  has  perfections  in  order  to  show 
that  she  is  the  image  of  God,  and  defects  in 
order  to  show  that  she  is  only  His  image." 

**  In  almost  all  ages  and  countries  the 
generality  of  philosophers  and  contempla- 
tive men  were  persuaded  of  the  existence  of 
a  Deity  from  the  consideration  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  universe ;  whose  fabric  and 
conduct  they  rationally  concluded  could  not 
justly  be  ascribed  either  to  chance  or  to  any 
other  cause  than  a  Divine  Being."  (Pascal, 
Pensies.) 

"  I  am  by  all  means  for  encouraging  the 
contemplation  of  the  celestial  part  of  the 
world,  and  the  shining  globes  that  adorn  it, 
and  especially  the  sun  and  moon,  in  order 
to  raise  our  admiration  of  the  stupendous 
power  and  wisdom  of  Him,  who  was  able  to 
frame  such  immense  bodies  ;  and  notwith- 
standing their  vast  bulk  and  scarce  conceiv- 
able rapidity,  keep  them  for  so  many  ages 
constant,  both  to  the^  lines  and  degrees  of 
their  motion,  without  interfering  with  one 
another.  And  doubtless  we  ought  to  return 
thanks  and  praises  to  the  Divine  goodness 


—  156- 

for  having  so  placed  the  sun  and  moon,  and 
determined  the  former,  or  else  the  earth,  to 
move  in  particular  lines  for  the  good  of 
men  and  other  animals ;  and  how  disadvan- 
tageous it  would  have  been  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  earth,  if  the  luminaries  had 
moved  after  a  different  manner."     (Boyle, 

Essays.) 

Boyle  and  Pascal  were  the  persons  mainly 
active  in  developing  the  more  peculiar  prin- 
ciples of  the  science  of  Hydrostatics. 

The  sciences  that  have  reached  their 
almost  finished  and  complete  form,  in  which 
an  extensive  and  varied  collection  of  phe- 
nomena, and  their  proximate  causes,  have 
been  reduced  to  a  few  simple  general  laws, 
are  Physical  Astronomy,  Mathematics,  Me- 
chanics and  Hydrostatics.  After  these  in 
order  of  development  come  Optics  and 
Electricity. 

Many  of  our  multiple  modern  sciences 
are  very  crude  and  mascelent,  and  based 
upon  some  of  the  most  erroneous  and  worth- 
less guesses.  They  are  called  sciences 
simply  through  courtesy. 

Clerk  Maxwell,  one  of  the  wisest  and 
greatest  of  recent  physicists,  said  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  that  he  had  scruti- 
nized all  the  agnostic  hypotheses  he  knew 
of,  and  found  that  they  one  and  all  needed 
a  God  to  make  them  workable. 


—  157  — 

Chapter  IX. 

ASTRONOMY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

The  Bible  points  out  the  chief  attributes 
of  the  Godhead  as  unity,  omnipotence,  in- 
finite wisdom,  absolute  unchangeableness, 
eternit}^  and  supreme  goodness. 

The  teaching  of  astronomy  concerning 
the  attributes  of  the  Creator  of  the  mate- 
rial universe  is  in  striking  accord  in  this 
respect  with  the  revelations  of  Scripture. 
Astronomy  declares  in  clearest  tones  the 
unity  of  God.  It  is  most  evident  that  the 
structure  of  the  physical  universe  has  been 
planned  and  executed  by  one  mind  and  one 
hand. 

The  same  great  laws  of  motion  and  gravi- 
tation govern  matter  everywhere  in  the  cos- 
mos. The  matter  of  all  the  individual 
worlds  of  space  is  identical  as  far  as  being 
controlled  by  these  grand  forces. 

These  same  identical  laws  govern  the 
mightiest  sun,  the  tiniest  satellite,  the  mas- 
sive planet  and  the  evanescent  comet. 

The  laws  of  gravitation  and  motion  reach 
out  into  interstellar  space,  and  direct  there 
the  conduct  of  the  stars. 

Many  s^^stems  of  binary  stars  are  well 
known  to  be  governed  by  these  laws  as  rec- 
ognized by  us  in  our  own  solar  scheme. 


—  158  — 

Newton  verified  His  great  discovery  by 
showing  that  it  first  extended  to  the  moon 
and  afterwards  to  the  other  bodies  of  the 
system.  Other  great  astronomers  traced 
its  action  to  the  comets  and  stars.  The 
orbits  of  the  binary  stars  have  been  com- 
puted and  the  return  of  periodic  comets 
most  accurately  predicted.  So  that  in  the 
vast  universe  with  its  myriad  worlds  there 
is  unity  of  design,  matter  and  law.  One 
mind  must  have  conceived  the  infinite  plan 
and  one  mind  wrought  out  its  accomplish- 
ment. 

Astronomy  teaches  the  omnipotence  of 
the  framer  of  the  universe.  The  work  of 
dynamite  in  moving  enormous  masses  and 
the  rapid  rolling  of  heavy  trains  impress  us 
with  an  idea  of  power.  But  look  at  the 
evidences  of  power  in  nature.  The  earth  is 
nearly  8,000  miles  in  diameter  and  yet  it 
speeds  along  in  its  orbit  around  the  sun  at 
the  rate  of  19  miles  a  second,  or  with  65 
times  the  rapidity  of  the  initial  velocity  of 
a  cannon  ball. 

The  moon  and  other  satellites,  and  the 
planets  all  have  rapid  motions  in  space. 
The  mighty  Jupiter,  twelve  hundred  times 
the  size,  and  three  hundred  and  ten  times 
the  weight  of  the  earth,  is  flying  through 
space  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  a  second. 

The  sun  itself,  thirteen  hundred  thousand 


—  159  — 

times  the  size  of  the  earth  and  326  thousand 
times  its  mass,  is  rushing  onward  toward 
Hercules  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  a  second. 

The  binary  stars  before  mentioned  are  re- 
volving around  each  other  with  rapid  speed, 
and  the  great  suns  of  space  are  all  traveling 
in  widely  extended  orbits  with  high  veloci- 
ties. The  bright  Sirius,  more  than  a  thou- 
sand times  the  volume,  and  twenty  times 
the  mass  of  our  own  sun,  is  marching  on  at 
a  rate  of  fourteen  miles  a  second,  and  Can- 
opus  of  the  Southern  Sky,  the  mighty  King 
of  suns,  moves  in  its  majestic  course  at  a 
high  rate  of  speed. 

Nothing  less  than  an  omnipotent  arm 
could  guide  the  awful  momenta  of  these 
vast  worlds,  for  the  hand  that  would  stretch 
out  even  and  stop  the  little  moon  would 
have  to  be  all  powerful.  These  mighty 
forces  of  the  heavens  truly  speak  of  omnip- 
otence. 

Again,  the  celestial  mechanism  demands 
supreme  wisdom  in  the  Machinist.  Nothing 
could  point  out  more  clearly  the  great  wis- 
dom of  the  Architect  of  the  skies,  than  the 
discovery  of  the  true  system  of  the  world  by 
Copernicus.  The  old  or  false  system  with 
cycles  and  epicycles,  centrics  and  eccentrics, 
with  its  cumbrous  complexity,  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  real  beauty  and  simplicity  of 
the  true  system. 


—  160  — 

The  beautiful  laws  by  wbich  our  own 
scheme  of  worlds  is  controlled,  and  equilibri- 
um preserved  among  so  many  great  revolv- 
ing orbs  around  a  central  mass,  of  itself  alone 
demonstrates  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of 
mathematics  is  that  of  the  three  bodies. 
When  three  bodies  are  launched  into  space, 
it  requires  the  highest  mental  powers  of  the 
astronomer  to  compute  their,  paths.  When 
this  is  complicated  wdth  scores  of  other 
bodies,  adding  their  mutual  disturbances  and 
multiplying  perturbations,  it  requires  in- 
finite wisdom  to  give  each  its  orbit  so  that 
it  will  hold  its  own  path  and  not  destroy  or 
materially  interfere  with  the  paths  of  its 
neighbors.  And  still  greater  wisdom,  if 
possible,  is  needed  to  marshal  the  mighty 
hosts  of  heaven,  the  hundred  millions  of 
rushing  suns  and  their  vast  retinues. 

The  science  of  astronomy  teaches  that 
God  is  unchangeable.  Without  their  con- 
stancy and  invariability,  Newton  could  never 
have  discovered  his  law  of  gravitation,  nor 
Kepler  and  Galileo  their  laws  of  motion. 

The  laws  governing  the  universe  of  mat- 
ter are  absolutely  invariable. 

The  time  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis  has  not  changed  a  fraction  of  a  sec- 
ond within  historic  times.  So  uniform  are 
the   motions  of  the  moon  and    the  planets 


-161  — 

that  mathematicians  can  compute  the  times 
of  eclipses  and  occultations  to  within  a  small 
fraction  of  a  second. 

The  guiding  hand  of  the  celestial  ma- 
chinery has  impressed  it  with  its  own  im- 
mutability. It  was  thought  for  a  time  that 
the  motion  of  the  moon  was  changing,  and 
that  she  was  gradually  but  surely  slipping 
away  from  her  path.  It  has  been  found 
that  this  acceleration,  as  it  is  called,  of  the 
moon's  motion  is  due  to  the  united  influ- 
ences of  the  planets  on  the  earth's  orbit, 
widening  it  and  making  it  more  circular. 
But  after  a  vast  period  this  will  correct 
itself,  and  the  earth  return  to  its  original 
path. 

Astronomy  demonstrates  that  God  is  ubiq- 
uitous, or  as  the  Scripture  has  it,  that  He 
fills  immensity  by  His  presence.  As  the 
power  of  the  telescope  grew  greater  and 
greater  vast  numbers  of  new  stars  were  re- 
vealed, buried  deeper  and  deeper  in  the 
realms  of  space. 

Lord  Rosse's  mighty  reflector  discloses 
stars  sunk  so  far  in  space  that  it  would  re- 
quire light  speeding  at  the  rate  of  185,000 
miles  a  second,  sixty  thousand  years  to 
travel  over  the  distance  between  them  and 
the  earth. 

If  the  powers  of  the   optic  tube  could  be 

increased,  stars  still  farther  away  would  be- 
ll 


—  162  — 

come  visible.  God's  power  readies  out  to 
all  these  bodies.  If  liis  sustaining  hand 
relaxed  for  an  instant,  all  would  be  immedi- 
ate chaos. 

God's  universe  also  points  strikingly  to 
his  eternity.  The  physical  universe  is  con- 
stantly changing;  it  had  certainly  a  begin- 
ning, and  will  have  an  end.  God's  eternity 
can  be  shown  from  His  works,  since  they 
are  not  eternal,  only  by  analogy.  The  strata 
of  the  earth  show  the  great  time  it  has  en- 
dured. The  stars  point  to  countless  ages 
through  which  they  have  existed.  There 
are  stars  so  far  in  space,  that  if  now  de- 
stroyed, an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  would 
not  know  of  the  disappearance  for  millions 
of  years.  The  light  beam  from  that  annihi- 
lated sun  would  carr}'  the  news  of  its  former 
existence  for  millions  of  ages.  The  tele- 
scope has  demonstrated  that  many  of  the 
stars  revolve  around  each  other.  One  of 
these  revolutions  would  require  an  immense 
time  for  its  accomplishment. 

The  spectroscope  tells  us  that  the  most 
distant  suns  have  motions.  All  move  around 
centers,  and  these  again  around  other  cen- 
ters. It  would  take  almost  an  eternity  for 
the  countless  orbs  of  space  to  perform  a 
complete  cycle  of  the  skies.  If  the  creatures 
have  so  great  an  age,  what  of  the  Creator? 
Is  not  his  existence  an  eternal  one  ? 


—  163  — 

When  we  examine  the  laws  of  the  phys- 
ical world  and  see  their  beauty  and  benefi- 
cence, may  we  not  also  say  that  their  framer 
has  supreme  goodness,  since  these  laws  have 
been  selected  from  an  almost  infinite  number 
of  possible  ones  simply  for  their  adaptation 
to  the  happiness  and  well-being  of  living 
creatures  ? 

The  great  laws  governing  the  universe 
of  matter  have  been  but  recently  discovered 
and  understood  by  man.  They  were  entire- 
ly unknown  to  the  ancients.  How  could  the 
writers  of  the  Bible  have  discovered  these 
attributes  of  God?  May  we  not  truly  claim 
that  they  could  only  obtain  this  knowledge 
from  divine  revelation?  From  Inspiration? 
This  will  appear  all  the  more  evident  when 
we  know  that  the  knowledge  of  these  sub- 
lime attributes  of  God  has  escaped  the  learn- 
ing and  subtilt}^  of  the  Greek,  and  the 
profundity  of  the  Roman.  Look-  at  the 
puerile  and  often  debased  characters  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  gave  their  gods.  Surely 
the  Hebrew  penmen  were  inspired. 

Outside  the  Pentateuch  there  are  but  few 
allusions  in  the  Bible  to  astronomical  facts. 
In  that  wonderful  book,  there  are  indeed 
illustrations  drawn  from  every  department 
of  human  knowledge,  from  astronomy,  op- 
tics, meteorology  and  natural  history. 


—  164  — 

The  astronomical  allusions  in  the  Book 
of  Job  are  most  extraordinary,  when  we  con- 
sider its  vast  antiquity,  and  that  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  system  of  the  world  and 
of  the  great  laws  of  matter  is  comparatively 
of  recent  date.  The  questions  asked  in  the 
Book  of  Job,  under  the  circumstances,  could 
be  prompted  alone  by  inspiration. 

The  ancients  knew  very  little  of  astrono- 
my. What  little  they  did  know  for  the 
most  part  came  under  a  false  system,  the 
Ptolemaic. 

The  first  astronomers,  by  universal  assent, 
were  the  Chaldeans.  They  had  a  small  cata- 
logue of  eclipses,  discovered  the  ''  saros  "  or 
lunar  period,  and  invented  the  zodiac.  They 
determined  the  length  of  the  tropical  year, 
the  equinoctial  and  solstitial  points,  and  used 
the  clepsydra,  the  gnomon  and  the  hemi- 
spherical dial.  This  is  a  summary  of  their 
astronomical  attainments. 

Now  the  questions  asked  in  Job  are  as  apt 
and  appropriate  to-day,  in  the  light  of  mod- 
ern astronom}^,  the  most  perfect  of  the 
sciences,  as  they  were  in  the  days  of  Job. 
^' Where  wast  thou  when  I  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  earth  ?  Declare,  if  thou  hast 
understanding.  Who  hath  laid  the  meas- 
ures thereof,  if  thou  knowest ;  or  who  hath 
stretched  the  line  upon  it  ?  Whereupon  are 
the  foundations   thereof    fastened ;    or  who 


—  165  — 

hatii  laid  the  corner-stone  thereof?  When 
the  morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the 
sons  of  God  shouted  for  joy?''  The  He- 
brew word  from  which  ^'foundations"  is 
translated,  really  means  sockets  or  pivots, 
and  the  word  from  which  ''fastened''  is  de- 
rived, is  best  rendered  by  "  made  to  sink." 

This  question  is  as  unanswerable  to-day 
in  all  the  light  of  modern  science,  as  in  the 
time  of  Job.  We  might,  indeed,  answer 
that  the  world  is  sustained  by  gravitation. 
The  laws  of  gravitation  are  known,  but 
what  gravitation  is  in  itself,  except  that  it 
is  a  manifestation  of  God's  power,  is  as  un- 
answerable now  as  in  the  days  of  antiquit}^ 

Another  sentence  of  Job:  "  He  stretcheth 
out  the  north  over  the  empt}^  place,  and 
hangeth  the  earth  upon  nothing."  The 
real  void  part  of  the  heavens  is  the  north, 
it  is  a  region  of  vacuity.  As  we  approach 
the  Galaxy  or  Milky  Way,  the  heavens  be- 
come richer  and  richer  in  star  dust.  And 
how  true  the  expression,  that  the  earth 
hangeth  upon  nothing? 

Another  interrogatory  is :  "  Or  who  shut 
up  the  sea  with  doors  when  it  broke  forth, 
as  if  it  had  issued  out  of  the  womb  ? 

When  I  made  the  cloud,  the  garment 
thereof,  and  thick  darkness  a  swaddling- 
band  for  it,  and  broke  up  for  it  m}^  decreed 
place,    and    set  bars    and    doors,    and    said. 


—  16^  — 

liitlierto  slialt  tliou  come,  but  no  farther; 
and  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be  stayed?  " 
The  translators  of  the  Bible  found  great 
difficulty  in  rendering  into  the  vernacular 
scientific  matters,  of  which  they  themselves 
and  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  were  not 
only  ignorant,  but  even  entertained  false 
notions,  and  in  some  instances  the  sense  of 
the  original  was  a  little  bent  to  make  it  the 
more  intelligible.  Instead  of  ^'and  broke 
up  for  it  my  decreed  place  "  in  the  inter- 
rogation, the  choicer  rendering  would  be 
'^  established  my  decree  upon  it." 

Now  truly  the  adjustments  by  which  the 
ocean  limits  are  fixed,  are  most  wonderful. 
If  the  earth  had  only  the  density  of  Saturn 
or  Uranus,  the  water  on  its  surface  would 
be   in  a  condition  of   unstable    equilibrium 
and  the  slightest  disturbance  of  the  water 
would  cause  it  to  rush  to   one  side.     The 
earth  would  float  on  the  water  like  a  globe 
of  cork,  and  be  tossed  and  rolled  over  and 
over,  and  every  part  would  be  alternately 
submerged.     Even  should  the  earth  retain 
its  present  specific  gravity,  if  its  orbit  and 
those  of  the  moon  and  planets  were  materi- 
ally changed,  tides  could  be  produced,  sub- 
merging successively  the  whole  earth,  and 
God's  decree,    ^'Hitherto  shalt  thou  come, 
and  no  farther;    and  here  shall  thy  proud 
waves  be  stayed,"  would  be  made  void. 


—  167  — 

Again  God  asks  Job :  '^  Hast  thou  com- 
manded the  morning  since  thy  days,  and 
caused  the  day-spring  from  on  high  to  know 
his  place?  That  it  might  take  hokl  of  the 
ends^of  the  earth.  It  is  turned  as  cla^^  to 
the  seal,  and  they  stand  as  a  garment." 
God  intimates  to  his  servant  that  the  day- 
spring  has  its  appointed  place,  and  never 
changes,  that  morning  appears  with  unfail- 
ing regularity  and  precision.  And,  indeed, 
nothing  can  be  truer.  There  is  nothing  in 
the  universe  more  unchanging  than  the 
motion  of  the  earth's  rotation,  the  cause  of 
the  day-spring,  of  morning  and  night.  For 
three  thousand  years  it  has  not  perceptibly 
changed.  This  is  undying  precision.  The 
other  motions  that  we  know  of  in  the  uni- 
verse var3^  The  motion  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit,  of  the  moon,  of  the  planets,  of  comets, 
are  variable.  This  rotation  is  alone  un- 
changing. 

Should  the  velocity  of  this  rotation  grow 
greater  or  less,  then  disorder  w^ould  enter 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  for  the 
temperature  of  the  various  regions  of  the 
earth  would  become  deranged  and  destruc- 
tion would  inevitably  follow. 

Again,  should  this  rotation  grow  slower, 
the  w^aters  would  lose  their  present  equili- 
brium, and  the  centrifugal  strain  being  re- 
laxed, they  would  rush  madly  upon  the  polar 


—  IGS- 

regions.  Should  the  rotation  be  increased 
in  speed,  they  would  flow  wildly  towards  the 
equator  with  the  increase  of  centrifugal 
force.  Hence  the  wonderful  truth  of  the 
sa3ang  of  Job:  "He  hath  compassed  the 
waters  v/ith  bounds,  until  the  day  and  night 
shall  come  to  an  end."  If  day  and  night 
should  come  to  an  end,  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  would  cease,  and  the  waters  would  no 
longer  be  compassed  with  bounds. 

''It  is  turned  as  clay  to  the  seal,  and  they 
stand  as  a  garment."  This  sentence  might 
be  interpreted  as  follows :  The  full  blaze  of 
the  sun  does  not  break  forth  instantly  on 
its  rising  in  the  morning.  The  east  is 
illuminated  gradually  and  slowly.  The  at- 
mosphere refracts  the  early  beams  of  morn- 
ing, bending  them  down,  and  curving  them 
round  the  earth  and  moulding  them  to  its 
form  as  cla}^  to  the  seal,  and  standing  about 
the  earth  as  a  garment  of  light. 

Seeing  that  the  ancients  could  know 
nothing  about  the  true  system  of  the  world, 
and  of  the  beauty  and  grand  simplicity  of 
its  laws,  the  astronomic  language  of  the 
Bible  is  marvellously  apt  and  appropriate 
in  the  light  of  modern  science.  Besides  the 
sublime  simplicity  of  the  language  of  Moses, 
the  doctrines  of  the  Persians,  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  even  concerning  the  structure  of  the 
world   is    ridiculous.     "  In    the    beginning. 


—  169  — 

God  created  tlie  heavens  and  the  earth." 
The  Eg3^ptians  ascribed  the  origin  of  all 
things  to  a  winged  egg,  the  Persians  to  a 
gloomy  atmosphere,  the  lonians  to  water, 
Epicnrus  to  a  fortunate  gathering  together 
of  atoms,  and  Zeno  to  the  energ}^  of  matter. 
All  but  Moses  beg  the  original  question. 
For  whence  came  the  egg,  the  wind,  the 
water,  the  atom,  and  the  matter? 

The  language  of  inspiration  proclaims 
that  ''  the  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God, 
the  firmament  showeth  his  handiwork.  Day 
unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto 
night  showeth  forth  knowledge."  What 
language  could  be  truer  or  more  just.  Look 
at  the  Galaxy,  the  Alilky  Way,  our  own 
universe  with  its  hundred  million  suns  and 
their  retinues,  all  governed  b}^  the  same 
simple  and  wise  laws.  Look  far  beyond  our 
universe  into  other  universes  even  more 
populous  in  suns  than  our  own,  and  still  on 
bej^ond  the  reach  of  any  telescopic  power  or 
plummet,  and  we  must  confess  that  the 
heavens  do  indeed  declare  their  Maker's 
glory. 

God,  wishing  to  illustrate  the  perpetuity 
of  his  covenant  with  Israel,  says:  "Thus 
saith  the  Lord,  who  giveth  the  sun  for  a 
light  by  day,  and  the  ordinances  of  the  moon 
and  the  stars  for  a  light  by  night,  if  these 
ordinances  depart  from  before  me,  then  may 


—  170  — 

my  promise  fail."  This  alludes  to  the  in- 
variability of  the  earth's  rotation. 

Again,  the  Hebrew  prophet  represents 
God  as  saying:  ^' If  heaven  above  can  be 
measured,  and  the  foundations  of  the  earth 
searched  out  from  beneath,  then,  and  not 
till  then  will  I  cast  off  my  people."  ^'If  ye 
can  break  my  covenant  of  the  da}^,  and  my 
covenant  of  the  night,  and  that  there  should 
not  be  day  and  night  in  their  season ;  then 
may  my  covenant  be  broken  with  my  serv- 
ant David." 

"As  the  host  of  heaven  cannot  be  num- 
bered, so  will  I  multiply  the  seed  of  David." 

"  If  my  covenant  be  not  with  day  and 
night,  and  if  I  have  not  appointed  the  ordi- 
nances of  heaven  and  earth,  then  will  I  cast 
away  the  seed  of  Jacob." 

These  passages  simply  intimate  that  the 
laws  governing  the  physical  world  are  un- 
changeable, which  is  absolutely  true,  as  we 
have  seen  in  the  light  of  modern  science. 

That  neither  the  stars  can  be  numbered 
nor  heaven  measured  is  equally  true,  as  is 
demonstrated  by  the  telescope.  The  stars 
visible  to  the  unaided  e3^e  have  been  accu- 
rately counted  and  are  found  to  number 
between  six  and  seven  thousand.  But  the 
more  powerful  the  telescope  used,  the  greater 
the  number  of  the  stars  revealed  and  the 
deeper  space  looks.     Ever}^  new  increase  of 


—  171  — 

telescopic  power  gives  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  stars  rendered  visible,  and  to  the 
extent  of  space,  until  finally  it  is  admitted 
that  there  is  limit  neither  to  the  number  of 
stars,  nor  to  the  expanse  of  the  ether. 

Again  in  Job  :  ''  Knowest  thou  the  ordi- 
nances of  heaven,  and  canst  thou  set  the 
dominion  thereof  on  earth."  The  heavens 
and  the  earth  are  always  inseparably  united 
in  the  language  of  the  Bible,  while  in  the 
records  of  all  other  primitive  nations  they 
are  invariably  treated  as  entirely  separated. 
The  latest  teaching  of  modern  science  is 
that  they  are  one  and  inseparable,  governed 
by  the  same  laws  of  attraction  and  motion. 

The  spectroscope  shows  that  the  stars  are 
suns  similarly  composed  as  our  own.  Many 
elements  found  upon  the  earth  have  been 
discovered  and  identified  by  spectrum  anal}- 
sis  to  be  present  in  the  sun  and  stars,  such 
as  hydrogen,  sodium,  iron,  magnesium  and 
others. 

Whenever  allusion  is  made  in  the  Bible 
to  the  physical  heavens  it  would  seem  to 
have  been  written  by  one  endowed  with  the 
most  profound  and  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  facts  and  laws  of  modern  science.  The 
astronomic  illustrations  in  the  Bible  were 
most  appropriate  to  the  age  in  which  they 
were  written,  and  are  equall}^,  indeed,  more 
strongly  apt  at  the  present  time.     This  is 


— 172  — 

not  accident.  It  would  be  nnphilosophic, 
indeed,  silly  to  think  so.  It  is  the  plainest 
and  most  tangible  insj^iration. 

With  equal  truth  and  sublimity,  the 
Psalmist  exclaims:  ''  O  Lord  my  God,  thou 
art  very  great;  thou  art  clothed  with  honor 
and  majesty ;  who  coverest  thyself  with 
light  as  with  a  garment  .  who  stretchest  out 
the  heavens  like  a  curtain  :  who  maketh  the 
clouds  his  chariot :  who  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  earth,  that  it  should  not  be  removed 
forever.  Thou  coverest  it  with  the  deep  as 
with  a  garment." 

The  two  great  astronomic  miracles  of  the 
Bible,  were  the  going  backward  of  the  shad- 
ow on  the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz  ten  degrees,  and 
the  stopping  of  the  sun  and  moon  for  a 
whole  day  at  Joshua's  bidding. 

A  miracle  is  a  violation  of  an  established 
law  of  nature  and  can  be  produced  evidently 
by  the  same  power  which  made  and  still 
enforces  nature's  laws.  One  of  the  best 
known,  best  established  and  most  universal 
of  nature's  laws  is  that  of  gravitation.  Can 
God  for  special  reason  suspend  this  law? 
He  certainly  can.  He  having  beeu  the  law's 
framer.  If  the  historic  testimony  is  suffi- 
ciently truthful,  we  must  believe  that  God 
did  it.  But  as  we  have  seen  alread}^  the 
Bible  is  a  trustworthy  historic  record.  But 
is  it   reasonable  or  philosophic  for  an  un- 


—  173  — 

changeable  God  to  suspend  an  immutable 
law  ?  This  is  the  chief  question.  The  use 
of  miracles  cannot  be  denied  to  God  in  the 
moral  government  of  the  world.  Man  has 
a  free  will.  He  can  do  or  not  do,  or  do  the 
contrar}^  The  ph^^sical  elements  of  nature 
have  no  free  will,  and  are  controlled  b}^  in- 
variably inexora.ble  laws.  God  must  govern 
the  moral  world  differently  from  the  ph3'S- 
ical.  Whenever  the  religious  education  or 
moral  elevation  of  man  in  God's  judgment 
requires  a  miracle,  a  suspension  of  a  physical 
law,  God  cannot  philosophically  be  denied 
the  use  of  miracles.  It  cannot  be  reasonably 
denied  that  a  power  competent  to  select 
and  enact  laws,  can,  if  He  pleases,  suspend 
or  alter  them  with  this  reservation,  that  the 
changes  must  be  consistent  with  each  other 
and  with  what  remains.  Reason  teaches  us 
that  no  power  can  accomplish  an  impossi- 
bility or  what  is  a  contradiction  in  itself, 
and  God  has  given  us  our  reason. 

With  regard  to  Joshua's  miracle  of  making 
the  sun  and  moon  stand  still  during  the 
space  of  a  day,  God  could  accomplish  it  in 
many  wa3^s.  He  might  for  instance  stop  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  This 
would  have  the  effect  of  arresting  the  appar- 
ent motion  of  the  sun  and  moon.  There 
would  be  no  need  of  interfering  with  the 
revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies.    A  sudden 


—  174- 

stopping  of  tlie  earth's  rotation  would  throw 
bodies  on  its  surface  into  space  with  the  ve- 
locity of  the  earth's  rotation,  according  to 
the  law  of  inertia  or  the  first  law  of  motion. 
However,  the  earth  could  be  stopped  slowly 
so  that  r\p  shock  w^ould  be  perceptible.  This 
could  be  accomplished  in  the  space  of  a 
single  minute.  Besides  the  stopping  of  the 
earth's  rotation,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
sustain  the  equilibrium  of  the  waters  or  to 
replace  the  effects  of  centrifugal  force. 

That  God  wrought  the  miracle  we  know 
from  revelation.  Why  he  did  so,  or  how, 
we  do  not  know. 

Frequent  attempts  have  been  made  to  re- 
move the  miraculous  character  of  the  event 
and  to  explain  by  natural  causes  the  stand- 
ing still  of  the  sun  and  moon  at  Joshua's 
command  during  the  battle  of  Beth-Horon, 
by  attributing  the  phenomenon  to  the  effects 
of  atmospheric  refraction.  The  atmosphere 
certainly  does  refract  the  sun's  rays  passing 
through  particularly  near  the  horizon.  It 
is  a  principle  of  optics,  that  light  passing 
from  a  rare  to  a  more  dense  medium  is  bent 
towards  the  perpendicular,  so  that  the  sun- 
beams receive  a  curvature  in  passing  through 
the  air,  the  sun  appearing  in  the  line  of  the 
tangent  to  the  curve. 

The  effects  of  refraction  are,  however, 
very  slight,  raising  the  sun  vertically  above 


—  175- 

tlie  horizon,  a  distance  about  equal  to  its 
own  apparent  diameter.  It  would  be  absurd 
to  think  that  natural  refraction  could  keep 
the  sun  and  moon  still  for  a  whole  day.  By 
interposing  a  substance  of  very  extraordi- 
nary refracting  powers,  God  could  accom- 
plish it,  but  tliis  would  be  equall}-  as  mirac- 
ulous as  either  the  stopping  of  the  earth's 
rotation,  or  the  motion  of  the  machinery  of 
the  heavens.  One  miracle  is- as  easy  of  ac- 
complishment to  God  as  another. 

Now  it  may  be  said,  that  if  ever  there  was 
an  occasion  demanding  from  God  a  miracle 
to  save  his  own  chosen  nation,  it  was  this 
same  battle  of  Beth-Horon.  In  vain  would 
God  have  freed  his  people  from  the  yoke  of 
Egypt,  and  led  them  safely  for  40  years 
throuofh  the  desert,  and  assisted  them  to 
take  Jericho,  if  now  they  failed  at  Beth- 
Horon.  After  the  fall  of  Jericho,  the  five 
kings  or  sheiks  of  South  Palestine  had 
banded  together  to  destroy  the  invading  Is- 
raelites. The  Gibeonites  having  gone  over 
to  Joshua,  the  Canaanites  lay  siege  to  Gibeon 
with  all  their  forces,  and  Joshua  hastened 
to  its  defense.  Had  Joshua  lost  the  battle, 
his  forces  would  be  driven  back  across  the 
Jordan,  and  be  probably  exterminated.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  decisive  battles  in  all 
the  histor}^  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and  put 
its  very  existence  in  hazard.     Can  we  won- 


—  176  — 

der  that  God  iuterposed  at  the  prayer  of  his 
ser^'ant  to  help  his  choseu  people  ? 

Joshua  was  at  Gilgal  when  he  received  the 
message  of  distress  from  the  Gibeonites, 
calling  on  him  for  immediate  succor.  Dur- 
incr  the  niofht,  he  marched  the  twelve  miles 
between  the  cities,  and  just  about  dawTi  stood 
under  the  walls  of  Gibeon.  The  Amorites 
were  stirprised  and  fled  before  the  forces  of 
Joshua.  The  hero  having  pursued  the 
enemy  to  the  crest  of  the  hill  at  Upper  Beth- 
Horon,  six  miles  from  Gibeon,  and  witness- 
ing their  precipitous  flight  down  the  road 
toward  Lower  Beth-Horon,  began  to  fear 
that  he  would  escape,  and  the  victor^'  would 
be  an  imperfect  one. 

It  was  now  about  nine  o'clock  in  the 
mornino-.  and  the  sun  stood  over  Gibeon  to 
the  south  east  of  Joshua,  while  the  moon 
being  in  the  3rd  or  4th  quarter,  stood  west 
of  him  and  over  the  valley  of  Ajalon.  AVith 
outstretched  hands  the  hero  of  Israel  and 
with  supreme  confidence  in  his  father's 
God  cries  out :  ''  Sun  stand  thou  still  upon 
Gibeon ;  and  thou,  ^loon,  in  the  A'alley  of 
Ajalon.  And  the  Lord  hearkened  to  his 
voice,  and  the  sun  stood  still,  and  the  moon 
stayed  until  the  people  had  avenged  them- 
selves upon  their  enemies,  and  it  hastened 
not  to  cfo  down  about  a  whole  dav." 

The  retroversion  of  the  shadow  on  the  sun- 


—  177  — 

dial  of  Ahaz  is  another  of  the  astronomic 
miracles  of  the  Bible.  The  atmosphere's 
propert}'  of  refraction  maintains  the  sun  and 
other  heavenly  bodies  sometime  above  the 
horizon,  when  they  have  actually  set.  With- 
out interfering  but  little  with  the  laws  of 
nature,  God  could  have  interposed  a  refrac- 
ing  medium  sufficient  to  (apparentl}')  turn 
the  sun's  shadow  backward  through  ten  de- 
grees of  an  arc.  This,  however,  would  re- 
quire a  miraculous  inter^^ention  of  God,  but 
Avould  be  vrrought  out  b}^  the  aid  of  natural 
laws  and  not  through  a  violation  of  them. 

The  laws  of  the  physical  universe  are  un- 
changeable because  God  has  made  them  so. 
In  the  sight  of  God,  the  moral  towers  in- 
finitel}'  above  the  material,  and  when  Divine 
wisdom  decides  that  he  can  add  to  the  moral 
by  the  suspension  of  the  laws  of  the  material 
world,  He  certainly-  has  reser\'ed  to  himself 
the  right  to  stay  these  laws. 

Astronomers  that  believe  in  the  eternity 
of  the  mechanism  of  the  world  and  of  mat- 
ter, must  be  in  constant  alarm,  for  a  chance 
accident  to  one  of  the  myriad  suns  rolling 
in  space,  would  bring  them  all  tumbling  to- 
gether in  chaos.  Those  that  believe  in  God, 
have  no  dread  of  this  kind,  for  the}'  are  not 
dependent  upon  chance  for  the  safety  of  the 
world,  and  believe  that  God's  goodness, 
power  and  wisdom  regulate  all  things. 

12 


—  178  — 

Many  persons  have  also  endeavored  to 
explain  the  apparition  of  the  Star  of  the 
Magi  by  a  natural  phenomenon,  and  thus 
rob  it  of  its  miraculous  character.  Kepler 
was  the  first  to  attempt  this  explanation  in 
order  to  establish  on  a  basis  of  certainty  the 
exact  date  of  our  Lord's  birth.  He  endeav- 
ored to  identify  a  conjunction  or  near  ap- 
proach of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  with  the 
appearance  of  the  star  of  the  Wise  men. 

Dr.  Idler  of  Berlin,  with  not  so  disinter- 
ested and  praiseworthy  a  motive  as  Kepler's, 
worked  out  with  great  care  and  really  much 
plausibility  this  idea  of  Kepler's.  Astron- 
omers, however,  have  recently  computed 
very  accurately  an  ephemeris  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  for  the  year  7  B.  C. 

There  were  three  conjunctions  of  these 
planets  in  that  year,  and  one  of  them  oc- 
curred in  December.  At  their  nearest  ap- 
proach, December  4th,  7  B.  C,  the  planets 
were  separated  by  a  space  equal  to  double 
the  apparent  diameter  of  the  moon.  Con- 
sequently the  planets  could  not  possibly 
have  appeared  as  a  single  star.  And  even 
if  this  did  look  as  a  single  very  bright  star, 
they  could  not  be  said  to  appear  to  move  on 
before  the  wise  men,  and  stand  still  over 
any  particular  stable  in  Bethlehem.  The 
stars,  planets  and  comets  are  too  distant  to 
appear  to  stop  or  stand  over  any"  particular 


—  179  — 

house  or  spot,  as  they  will  appear  equally 
to  be  over  every  object  in  the  neighborhood. 
Again,  meteors  are  too  ephemeral  in  their 
existence  and  too  rapid  in  their  flight  to  act 
as  guides.  This  apparition  of  the  star  of 
the  wisemen  could  have  been  no  natural 
phenomenon. 

These  conjunctions  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn 
recur  after  intervals  of  fifty-nine  years. 
This  conjunction  could  have  no  extraordi- 
nary character  for  the  Eastern  astronomers 
of  that  time,  as  they  must  have  been  ac- 
quainted with  the  matter,  seeing  that  they 
were  able  to  compute  the  times  of  the  solar 
eclipses  very  accuratel3^ 

The  distinguished  English  astronomer, 
Pritchard,  says:  ''But  even  supposing  that 
the  Alagi  did  undertake  this  journey  at  the 
time  in  question,  it  seems  impossible  that 
the  conjunction  of  December  B.  C.  7  can  on 
any  reasonable  grounds  be  considered  as 
fulfilling  the  conditions  in  St.  Alatthew. 
The  circumstances  are  as  follows :  on  or 
close  to  the  4th  of  December  the  sun  set  at 
Jerusalem  about  5  P.  M.  Supposing  the 
Magi  to  have  then  (or  soon  after)  com- 
menced their  jovirnc}^  to  Bethlehem,  they 
would  first  see  Jupiter  and  his  dull  compan- 
ion one  and  a  half  hour  distant  from  the 
meridian  in  a  S.  E.  direction,  and  decidedly 
to  the  east  of  Bethlehem,  which  village  is 


—  180  — 

distant  from  Jerusalem  by  about  a  two  hours' 
journey  in  a  southerly  direction.  By  the 
time  they  came  to  Ra.chel's  tomb,  the  planets 
would  be  due  south  of  them,  on  the  merid- 
ian, and  no  longer  over  the  Hill  of  Beth- 
lehem, for  as  seen  from  Rachel's  tomb  that 
hill  bears  S.  13°  E.  The  road  then  takes 
a  turn  to  the  east,  and  ascending  the  hill, 
terminates  near  to  its  western  extremity. 
The  planets  would  then  be  on  their  right 
hand  and  a  little  behind  them  as  they  en- 
tered the  village;  the  ^^star,"  therefore, 
would  cease  altogether  to  go  before  them  as 
a  guide,  and  the  case  would  be  worse  if 
they  left  the  Jaffa  gate  at  a  later  hour. 
Moreover,  once  on  the  hill,  even  if  the  star 
were  not  behind  them  as  they  proceeded 
along  the  village,  it  would  be  physically 
impossible  for  it  to  stand  over  any  house 
whatever  close  to  them,  seeing  that  it  would 
now  be  visible  far  away  from  the  hill,  on 
the  side  beyond  it  towards  the  west  and  the 
south,  at  an  elevation  of  about  50°  or  more. 
As  they  advanced,  the  starw^ould  of  necessity 
recede  towards  the  west,  and  under  no  cir- 
cumstances could  be  said  even  to  appear  to 
be  over  any  house  not  distant  by  many  miles 
from  the  place  where  they  were.  Thus  the 
two  heavenly  bodies  altogether  fail  to  fulfill 
either  of  the  conditions  implied  in  the  words 
'Svent  before  them"  (c'od-Jffzv  6cl'rof>c)  or  "stood 


—  181  — 

over  the  house  where  the  young  child  was" 
QazrWvj  endvco^^  and  the  beautiful  phantasm 
of  Kepler  and  Ideler,  which  has  fascinated 
so  many  minds,  vanishes  before  the  light  of 
an  astronomical  examination."  (Nature  and 
Revelation,  page  253.) 

The  star  of  the  Magi  was  no  ordinary 
astronomic  phenomenon,  but  must  have 
been,  as  the  Scripture  intimates,  a  super- 
natural and  divinely  appointed  messenger 
of  the  Most  High. 


Chapter  X. 

OPTICS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

Optics  is  one  of  the  best  developed  of  the 
sciences,  and  as  far  as  its  physical  conditions 
are  concerned,  has  acquired  a  considerable 
degree  of  completeness.  It  is  one  of  the 
few  sciences  in  which  an  extensive  and 
varied  collection  of  phenomena,  and  their 
proximate  causes,  have  been  reduced  to  a 
few  simple  general  laws. 

Optics  is  preeminent^  a  modern  science 
and  largely  owes  its  development  to  Young 
and  Fresnel. 

The  ancients  did  very  little  in  the  field 
of  optics,  and  their  acquaintance  with  it  was 
confined  to  a  knowledge   of  the  law  of  re- 


—  182  — 

flection.  The  ancient  pliilosophers,  with 
the  exception  of  Aristotle,  believed  that  rays 
proceeded  from  the  eye  to  the  object,  instead 
of  from  the  object  to  the  eye. 

The  Arabian  astronomer  Alhazen  appears 
to  have  been  the  first,  in  the  nth  century, 
to  perceive  that  vision  is  produced  by  ra3^s  of 
light  proceeding  from  the  object  to  the  eye. 

Ptolemy  was  acquainted  with  the  fact  that 
the  rays  of  light  passing  through  the  at- 
mosphere were  bent  or  refracted. 

During  the  middle  ages  no  addition  was 
made  to  this  science. 

Jansen,  Galileo  and  Kepler,  by  working 
and  experimenting  with  lenses,  made  some 
slight  advances  in  optics. 

From  this  time  forward,  the  science  began 
to  advance  slowly  but  steadily  under  the 
efforts  of  Snell,  Descartes,  DeDominis, 
Mariotte,  Boyle,  Barrovv^,  Fermat  and  others. 

The  gigantic  efforts  of  Newton  gave  an 
immense  impulse  to  the  study  of  this  sci- 
ence. Newton's  labors  in  the  field  of  optics 
were  herculean.  Newton  was  the  greatest 
advocate  of  the  corpuscular  or  emission 
theory  of  light,  although  Descartes,  the 
founder  of  modern  mechanical  philosophy, 
was  its  originator. 

Among  the  most  obvious  properties  of 
light,  discovered  by  observation,  are  its  di- 
vergence equally  in   all    directions    from  a 


—  183  — 

luminous  center  and  its  transmission  in 
straight  lines. 

Its  velocity  is  a  very  rapid  one  indeed, 
and  lias  been  determined  principally  by  the 
method  of  reflecting  mirrors  and  the  ob- 
servations of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites. 

Roemer,  in  1675,  made  the  first  estima- 
tion of  the  velocity  of  light  by  means  of 
observations  on  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's 
satellite.  He  found  by  this  method  a  veloc- 
ity for  light  of  190,000  miles  a  second. 

Fizeau,  in  1849,  ^^^^  used  reflecting  mir- 
rors to  compute  the  velocity  of  light.  This 
method  gives  185,000  miles  a  second  as 
light's  velocity,  and  these  figures  are  now 
regarded  by  scientists  generally  as  a  ver}^ 
close  approximation. 

Like  that  of  gravitation,  heat  and  sound, 
the  intensity  of  light  diminishes  inversel}^ 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  lumi- 
nous center.  All  surfaces  reflect  more  or 
less  light,  even  those  through  which  it  is 
most  readily  transmissible. 

When  a  ray  of  light  falls  upon  any  sur- 
face, the  angle  which  it  makes  with  the 
perpendicular  or  normal  to  the  surface  at 
the  point  of  incidence  is  called  the  angle 
of  incidence ;  and  that  which  the  reflected 
ray  makes  with  the  perpendicular,  is  called 
the  angle  of  reflection.     In  the  reflection  of 


-184  — 

light,  the  incident  ray,  the  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  at  the  point  of  incidence  and 
the  reflected  ray,  lie  in  the  one  same  plane, 
and  the  angle  of  reflection  is  always  equal 
to  the  angle  of  incidence. 

When  a  ray  of  homogeneous  light  is  in- 
cident on  a  refracting  surface,  the  angle 
which  its  direction  makes  with  the  perpen- 
dicular to  the  surface  is  called  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  the  angle  which  the  refracted 
ray  makes  with  the  perpendicular  is  called 
the  angle  of  refraction.  The  incident  and 
refracted  ray  lie  in  the  same  plane  as  the 
perpendicular  at  the  point  of  incidence,  and 
upon  opposite  sides  of  it. 

Snell's  law  of  the  sines  is  that  the  sine  of 
the  angle  of  incidence,  whatever  that  angle 
may  be,  bears  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  re- 
fraction a  constant  ratio  dependent  only  on 
the  nature  of  the  media  between  which  the 
refraction  takes  place,  and  on  the  nature  of 
the  light.  This  constant  ratio  just  men- 
tioned, is  called  the  coefficient  or  index  of 
refraction,  and  will  have  a  certain  value,  for 
instance,  for  refraction  from  vacuum  into 
glass,  another  from  glass  into  water;  it  will 
also  have  one  value  for  red  light  and  an- 
other for  green,  blue,  yellow  and  so  on. 
This  coefficient  is  greater  than  unity  when 
refraction  takes  place  from  vacuum  into  a 
medium,    and   in    general    is    greater  than 


—  185  — 

unity  when  the  refraction  is  from  a  rarer 
into  a  denser  medium,  and  less  than  unity 
when  the  contrary  happens.  Thus,  from 
air  to  water,  the  coefficient  of  refraction  is 
f,  from  air  to  diamond  |,  from  water  to 
crown  glass  f,  and  from  crown  glass  to  dia- 
mond f ;  while  from  crown  glass  to  air  it  is 
t,  and  from  water  to  air  f ,  and  so  forth. 

The  angle  of  incidence  may  vary  from  o° 
up  to  90°,  and  the  angle  of  refraction  cannot 
exceed  90°,  because  this  is  the  whole  space 
between  any  surface  and  a  perpendicular  to 
it.  Hence,  for  light  going  toward  the  rarer 
medium,  there  will  be  a  limit  of  the  angle 
of  incidence  beyond  which  no  angle  of 
refraction  can  be  found  sufficiently  large. 
Rays  meeting  the  surface  at  an  angle  greater 
than  this  limit,  cannot  pass  the  siirface. 
There  is  a  mathematical  impossibilit}',  and 
hence  a  physical ;  and  the  light  is  wholly 
thrown  back  into  the  medium,  or  totally 
reflected. 

These  are  the  best  known  and  most  gen- 
eral properties  of  light.  There  are  mau}^ 
other  properties  of  light,  some  of  recent 
discovery,  such  as  polarization,  double  re- 
fraction, aberration,  chromatic  aberration, 
diffraction,  dispersion,  interference,  and  so 
on,  which  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Two  rival  theories,  purporting  to  account 
for  the  different  phenomena  of  light,  have 


—  186  — 

for  a  long  time  stood  side  by  side.  Each 
theory  claimed  great  names  among  its  sup- 
porters and  very  bitter  partisans.  The 
great  Newton  stood  the  father  of  the  one, 
and  Hu3^gens  that  of  the  other.  The  theory 
of  emission,  or  the  corpuscular  theory  of 
Newton,  claims  that  light  consists  of  lumi- 
nous particles  thrown  off  from  the  light 
source,  and  so  minute  as  to  be  practically 
imponderable.  These  particles  impinging 
on  the  organs  of  vision,  produce  the  sensa- 
tion of  light.  In  this  theory  the  colors  of 
light  depend  on  the  velocit}^  of  its  trans- 
mission. It  regards  reflection  as  analogous 
to  the  rebounding  of  elastic  bodies,  while  to 
explain  refraction,  it  assumes  that  there  are 
interstices  in  transparent  bodies,  to  allow  of 
the  passage  of  the  particles  of  light,  and 
that  these  particles  are  attracted  by  the 
molecules  of  bodies,  their  attraction  combin- 
ing with  the  velocity  of  the  particles  of  light 
to  cause  them  to  deviate  in  their  course. 

The  particles  of  light  in  this  hypothesis 
are  capable,  like  elastic  balls,  of  bounding 
from  or  being  reflected  by  surfaces ;  and  the 
production  of  colors  is  explained  by  assum- 
ing that  a  rotary  motion  is  given  to  these 
particles  under  certain  circumstances. 

The  second  or  undulator}^  theory,  pro- 
posed by  Hooke  and  advocated  b}^  Huygens, 
supposes  the  existence  of  an  imponderable 


—  187  — 

cosmic  or  luminiferous  ether,  reaching  out 
into  interstellar  space  and  filling  the  inter- 
stices of  bodies,  all  of  which,  however  hard 
or  seemingly  impenetrable,  are  now  known 
to  be  more  or  less  porous.  Vibrations  in  the 
substance  of  this  ether,  transverse  or  per- 
pendicular to  the  direction  of  the  ray,  are, 
according  to  Huygens  and  his  disciples,  the 
origin  of  light. 

The  color  of  light  in  the  undulatory  the- 
ory depends  on  a  wave-length  or  on  the 
period  of  a  wave. 

It  was  the  explanation  of  the  principle  of 
interference,  that  formed  the  most  decisive 
reason  yet  known  for  adopting  the  undula- 
tory in  preference  to  the  emission  theory  of 
light. 

Interference  is  the  effect  which  ra3'S  of 
light,  after  being  bent  or  diffracted,  produce 
on  each  other. 

Fresnel  in  his  elegant,  lucid  and  most  in- 
structive experiment  on  Interference,  em- 
ployed two  mirrors  placed  together  at  a 
very  obtuse  angle,  a  very  little  less  than 
i8o°,  and  reflected  from  theirsurfaces  upon 
a  screen  light  from  the  focus  of  a  lens,  in 
such  a  manner  that  on  reaching  the  screen, 
some  of  the  undulations  of  two  converging 
rays  should  correspond  and  intensif}^  one 
another,  while  others  should  be  separated  by 
half  a  wave  length  and  destro}^  one  another. 


—  188  — 

If  two  luminous  waves,  according  to  the 
undulatory  theory,  simultaneously  impel  a 
molecule  of  ether,  its  motion  will  be  the  re- 
sultant of  the  original  impulses  ;  and  if  the 
two  motions,  as  in  the  case  of  diffraction,  be 
nearly  in  the  same  direction,  the  resultant 
will  be  nearly  their  sum  ;  if  opposite,  their 
difference.  Thus,  when  a  particle  has  begun 
to  vibrate  from  the  action  of  a  luminous 
wave,  and  if,  while  in  motion,  another  wave 
impinge  upon  it,  the  result  will  be  increase 
of  light,  if  the  motion  of  the  second  wave 
conspire  with  that  of  the  first ;  but  a  de- 
crease, if  they  oppose  each  other ;  and  total 
darkness,  if,  while  opposing,  they  are  equal 
in  velocity. 

If  the  second  wave  impinge  upon  the 
molecule  of  ether,  already  vibrating  under 
the  impulse  of  a  first  wave,  after  it  has  ac- 
complished one  or  more  vibrations  and  has 
returned  to  its  original  position,  the  two 
waves  will  evidently  conspire  together,  and 
produce  more  violent  motion  ;  but  if  it  im- 
pinge on  the  molecule,  when  the  latter  has 
only  accomplished  half  a  vibration,  then  the 
wave  will  oppose  the  particle's  return  to  its 
original  position  ;  thus  producing  diminu- 
tion of  motion,  or,  if  equal,  rest. 

In  the  former  case,  the  intensity  of  light 
is  increased  ;  in  the  latter,  diminished ;  and 
if  the  undulations  are  of  equal  velocity,  the 


-189  — 

light  is  doubled   in  the  first  case,   and  de- 
stroyed in  the  second. 

The  corpuscular  h37po thesis  absolutely 
fails  to  explain  interference.  The  brilliant 
experiments  of  Young  and  Fresnel  on  this 
subject  of  Interference  have  won  a  complete 
triumph  for  the  undulatory  theory.  Its 
truth  is  now  universally  admitted  by  physi- 
cists. It  has  not  only  satisfactoril}^  ac- 
counted for  all  the  phenomena  of  light,  but 
has  been  the  means  of  discovering  new 
phenomena,  so  that  its  soundness  may  be 
said  to  rest  on  evidence  similar  to  that  which 
we  have  for  the  theory  of  gravitation. 

Owing  to  the  great  name  of  Newton,  the 
theory  of 'emission  seemed  for  a  long  time 
to  be  all  but  established. 

During  the  apparent  triumph  of  the  emis- 
sion theory  an  objection  that  appeared  in- 
surmountable was  raised  by  scientists  of 
this  school  against  the  language  of  Moses 
in  Genesis.  In  the  first  book  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, God  is  represented  as  making  light 
anterior  to  the  sun.  This  could  not  be 
under  the  corpuscular  theory,  seeing  that 
light  would  be  produced  by  particles  issuing 
from  the  sun.  Consequently  the  sun  should 
exist  before  we  could  have  the  sensation  of 
light.  During  the  swa}'-  or  vogue  of  the 
emission  theory,  this  statement  of  Closes 
was  regarded  by  infidel  scientists  as  so  ab- 


— 190  — 

surd,  that  they  declared  that  it  would  of 
itself  prove  Moses  an  impostor.  But  it  is 
now  known  that  it  is  in  perfect  accord  with 
the  undulatory  theory  and  consequently 
with  the  most  advanced  ideas  of  modern 
optics. 

And  so  the  old  objection  that  formerly 
seemed  so  overwhelming,  has  served  onty 
to  strengthen  the  truth  and  luster  of  the 
Mosaic  account.  This  indeed  should  be  a 
warning  to  scientists.  They  should  not 
pass  too  rapid  a  judgment  against  a  record 
that  has  stood  the  attacks  of  so  many  cen- 
turies. Thus  has  Scripture  preceded- the 
discoveries  of  the  learned. 

In  the  Book  of  Genesis,  Moses  represents 
God  as  saying:  ''  Be  light  made.  And  light 
was  made.  And  God  saw  the  light  that  it 
was  good :  and  he  divided  the  light  from 
the  darkness." 

Col.  Robert  G.  IngersoU  objects  very  ve- 
hemently to  the  correctness  of  this  declara- 
tion of  Moses  that  God  divided  the  light 
from  the  darkness.  It  is  one  of  his  chief 
objections  to  the  truth  of  the  Pentateuch, 
and  the  Colonel  refers  to  it  on  almost  all 
occasions. 

In  his  lecture  on  the  ''  Mistakes  of  Moses," 
the  Colonel,  (page  3)  says :  "  The  next  thing 
he  (Moses)  proceeds  to  tell  us,  is  that  God 
divided  the  darkness  from  the  light ;    and 


—  191  — 

right  here  let  me  say  when  I  speak  about 
God,  I  simply  mean  the  being  described  by 
the  Jews.  There  may  be  in  immensity 
some  being  beneath  whose  wing  the  uni- 
verse exists,  whose  every  thought  is  a  glit- 
tering star,  but  I  know  nothing  about  Him, 
not  the  slightest,  and  this  afternoon  I  am 
simply  talking  about  the  being  described  by 
the  Jewish  people.  When  I  say  God,  I 
mean  Him.  Moses  describes  God  dividing 
the  light  from  the  darkness.  I  suppose 
that  at  that  time  they  must  have  been 
mixed.  You  can  readily  see  how  light  and 
darkness  can  get  mixed.  They  must  have 
been  entities.  The  reason  I  think  so,  is 
because  in  that  same  book  I  find  that  dark- 
ness overspread  Egypt  so  thick,  that  it  could 
be  felt,  and  they  used  to  have  on  exhibition 
in  Rome  a  bottle  of  the  darkness  that  once 
overspread  Egypt.  The  gentleman  who 
wrote  this,  in  imagination  saw  God  dividing 
light  from  darkness.  I  am  sure  the  man 
who  wrote  it,  believed  darkness  to  be  an 
entity,  a  something,  a  tangible  thing  that 
can  be  mixed  with  light." 

The  eloquent  and  glittering  Colonel  is 
very  fond  of  bombast.  All  his  objections 
against  religion  are  dummies  arrayed  in 
bombast  and  the  raiment  forms  ninety-nine 
per  cent  of  the  whole. 

Darkness  is  a  negative  quality.     It  is  not 


—  192  — 

an  entity.  It  is  merely  the  absence  of 
light.  Cold  is  also  a  negative  quality.  It 
is  not  an  entity.  Cold  is  simply  the  ab- 
sence of  heat.  We  know  that  cold,  never- 
theless, can  be  divided  or  separated  from 
heat.  It  is  done  every  day.  Similarly  dark- 
ness can  be  divided  or  separated  from  light. 
It  is  done  every  day  when  w^e  close  our  doors 
and  window  blinds,  and  when  the  earth  ro- 
tates on  its  axis,  giving  twelve  hours  of  light 
on  an  average,  and  twelve  hours  of  darkness. 
We  all  speak  of  separating  light  from  dark- 
ness. Custom  has  made  the  mode  of  ex- 
pression universal  and  correct. 

In  another  way  God  divided  the  light 
from  the  darkness  by  gathering  together 
and  condensing  into  great  centers  the  nebu- 
lous matter  of  space  (according  to  the  nebu- 
lar hypothesis)  and  creating  great  luminous 
suns,  and  leaving  other  parts  of  space  in 
dense  darkness. 

Speaking  of  the  darkness  of  Egypt  as 
being  sensible  to  the  touch  is  a  very  com- 
mon metaphor.  In  alluding  to  the  bottle 
of  darkness  kept  in  Rome,  the  brilliant 
Colonel  exposes  his  gullibility.  A  Fuegiau 
free  from  prejudice  would  not  believe  that 
little    ditty. 

In  the  wonderfully  sublime  book  of  Job, 
the  Almighty  is  represented  as  asking  the 
patriarch:    ^' Where  is  the  way  where  light 


-  193  — 

dwelletli,  and  as  for  darkness,  where  is  the 
place  thereof,  that  thou  shouldst  take  it  to 
the  bounds  thereof,  and  that  thou  shouldst 
know  the  paths  to  the  house  thereof?  Know- 
est  thou  it  because  thou  wert  then  born,  or 
because  the  number  of  th}^  da3^s  is  great?" 
Here  are  enquiries  of  the  most  astonishing 
character  regarding  the  dwelling  place  of 
light  and  darkness,  the  bounds  of  each,  and 
the  path  to  the  house  of  light. 

These  questions  are  truly  wonderful  in 
the  light  of  modern  science.  They  are  as 
unanswerable  now  as  in  the  days  of  Job, 
when  neither  the  corpuscular  nor  undula- 
tory  theory  was  known.  We  can  as  little 
say  now  as  persons  in  the  time  of  Job  could 
say  where  is  the  limit  be3^ond  which  light 
has  never  passed,  and,  gazing  into  the  dark 
abyss  be^^ond,  declare  there  darkness  reigns. 

Every  new  increase  of  power  of  the  tele- 
scope has  revealed  new  stars  buried  deeper 
and  deeper  in  the  ab3^sm  of  space.  The 
leviathan  of  Lord  Rosse  discloses  stars  so 
far  away  from  us,  that  it  would  require 
60,000  years  for  light  traveling  with  its 
awful  velocit}^  to  cross  the  fearful  chasm. 

We  know  from  analog}-  that  greater  in- 
struments would  reveal  greater  depths  of 
space,  lighted  with  now  unknown  suns. 
You  may  look  into  points  in  space  appear- 
ing all  blank,  deep  and  dark  to  the  unaided 

13 


—  194  — 

vision,  and  turn  then  the  telescope  upon 
them  and  you  see  thousands  of  blazing  orbs. 
We  may  use  power  after  power  of  telescope 
and  gaze  into  space,  and  behold  black  spot 
after  black  spot  illumined  without  reaching 
a  limit.  We  cannot  then  pierce  the  bound- 
ary of  light.  We  cannot  penetrate  the  do- 
main of  darkness. 

Wonderfully  just  and  truthful  is  the 
sublime  language  of  Holy  Job,  and  the  light 
of  modern  science  has  particularly  flooded 
with  meaning  this  astonishing  passage. 


Chapter  XI. 

RESULTS  OF  GEOLOGY. 
{Agencies  of  Structure.) 

Geology  is  one  of  the  sciences  said  to  be 
in  conflict  with  the  Pentateuch.  Some  con- 
tend that  the  order  of  creation  as  set  forth 
in  Genesis,  is  contradicted  by  the  teachings 
of  Geology ;  that  the  fossils  found  in  the 
earth's  stony  bosom  favor  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution by  indicating  that  man  and  the  higher 
animals  have  all  been  transmuted  by  slow 
gradations  from  the  Monon,  an  animal  of 
one  cell,  the  lowest  form  of  life  ;  that  deposits 
deep  dowm  below  the  earth's  surface,  con- 
taining skeletons  and  relics  of  cave-men  and 


— 195  — 

lake-dwellers,  sliow  man's  antiquity  to  be 
vastly  greater  than  that  of  Biblical  chronol- 
ogy ;  and  that  even  the  fossil  itself  of  pre- 
historic man  has  been  unearthed. 

What  Geology  teaches  concerning  the  age 
of  the  world  and  the  order  of  creation,  will 
be  first  considered,  and  later  under  the 
headings  of  Biology,  Anthropology,  and  the 
Antiquity  of  Man,  the  questions  of  evolution 
and  man's  age. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  rocky  layers  or  strata.  These 
strata  have  been  laid  down  or  deposited  suc- 
cessivel}^  at  different  periods  of  time.  Each 
one  of  these  rocky  layers  contains  fossil  re- 
mains of  quite  different  and  distinct  species 
of  animals  and  plants.  Geologists  are  en- 
abled to  tell  by  the  character  of  the  fossil 
remains  found  in  the  various  strata,  the 
order  in  which  the  animal  and  plant  species 
appeared  upon  the  globe. 

Hence  the  great  import^ice  of  determin- 
ing as  accurately  as  possible  the  precise 
succession  of  the  rock}^  layers,  and  the  fossil 
fauna  and  flora  which  they  contain. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  order  of  the  cre- 
ation of  the  anim_al  and  vegetable  kingdoms 
voiced  b}^  Nature  herself,  far  from  being 
contradictory  to,  is  really  in  essential  har- 
mony with,  the  words  of  Genesis. 

That  Geology  demands  a  very  high  an- 


—  196- 

tiquity  for  our  world  can  be  easily  conceded. 
This  will  in  no  wise  impugn  the  veracity 
of  the  Mosaic  record.  The  days  of  Genesis, 
as  previously  mentioned,  are  regarded  in 
different  senses  by  different  commentators 
of  Scripture.  The  church  has  made  no 
official  declaration  on  the  subject. 

It  is  true  that  some  commentators  claim 
that  the  days  of  creation  must  be  under- 
stood as  days  of  only  twenty-four  hours 
each,  but  other  great  commentators  regard 
them  as  epochs,  and  others  again  as  ordinary 
days,  but  interpret  the  expression  '\In  the 
beginning"  of  Genesis  as  a  vast  period  of 
indefinite  length. 

One  of  the  most  peremptory  claims  of 
geologists  is  that  of  a  vast  age  for  the  world. 
Let  us  examine  the  grounds  upon  which 
this  claim  rests,  and  see  how  worthy  it  is 
of  our  credence. 

The  age  of  the  earth  is  recorded  on  the 
stony  leaves  of  its  crust.  Hence  the  great 
importance  of  examining  carefully  this  crust 
and  of  stud^'ing  the  nature  of  the  agencies 
that  combined  to  form  it.  If  we  are  con- 
vinced by  the  soundness  of  the  reasons  ad- 
duced by  geologists,  that  the  age  of  our 
globe  is  very  great,  we  are  at  libert}^  to  fol- 
low two  legitimate  interpretations  of  script- 
ure, admitting  of  a  high  antiquity  for  the 
world. 


— 197  - 

Geolog3%  as  its  name  intimates,  is  a  dis- 
course concerning  the  earth,  and  in  its 
usually  accepted  and  limited  sense  is  a  his- 
tory of  the  conditions  of  our  globe  and  its 
inhabitants  in  the  past.  Geology  is  the 
geography  and  natural  history  of  the  by- 
gone ages  of  our  planet. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  as  it  now  appears 
has  been  shaped,  generally,  by  slow  and 
gradual  processes.  The  self-same  forces  of 
formation  are  now  in  active  operation  under 
our  eyes,  and  it  is  principally  by  studying 
crust  structure  now  activel}^  at  work  that  we 
will  be  able  to  reason  b}^  analogy  back  to 
the  means  and  methods  of  earlier  similar 
formations. 

The  first  step  of  the  practical  geologist, 
then,  is  to  study  closely  the  causes  and 
processes  of  crust  structure  now  going  on 
on  every  side. 

The  principal  agencies-  now  at  work  in 
shaping  the  form  of  the  earth's  crust  are 
atmospheric,  aqueous,  organic,  and  igneous. 
By  observing  the  operations  of  these  agen-^ 
cies  now,  we  may  be  able  to  understand  the 
accumulated  effects  of  their  work  through 
inconceivable  ages  in  the  past. 

Atmospheric  Agencies. — The  chief  ef- 
fect of  the  atmosphere  on  the  earth's  crust 
is  the  formation  of  soil.  Soil  is  formed  from 
rock.     Soil  is  the  result  of  the  rotting  down 


—  198  — 

of  rocks  under  tlie  slow  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  ingredients  of  the  atmosphere 
in  soil-making  are  oxygen,  carbon  dioxide, 
and  water  as  moisture. 

The  moisture  of  the  air  falls  upon  the 
rocks  in  great  abundance  as  rain-water,  con- 
taining in  solution  carbon  dioxide  and  oxy- 
gen. Rain-water  falling  upon  the  surfaces 
of  rocks  and  penetrating  into  their  inter- 
stices, rots  them  and  forms  soils. 

Sometimes  the  soils  remain  resting  on 
the  rocks  where  they  are  formed ;  are  some- 
times removed  to  other  places,  as  from  hills 
to  bottom-lands;  and  again  carried  by  cur- 
rents to  great  distances. 

The  depth  of  the  soil  on  the  earth's  surface 
is  far  from  being  uniform.  In  many  places 
the  soil  is  carried  away  by  rain-falls  and 
streams  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  is  formed, 
and  again  some  rocks  rot  more  rapidly  than 
others.  On  level  plains  the  soil  is  very- 
deep,  as  the  process  of  rock-rotting  has  been 
going  on  uninterruptedly  for  untold  ages. 
Again  rocks  are  often  filled  with  joints  and 
fissures,  and  the  water  penetrates  to  great 
depths  and*consequently  the  process  of  soil- 
making  reaches  down  to  great  distances 
below  the  surface.  In  general,  however,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  process  of  soil-making 
is  extremely  slow. 

Some  parts  of  all  rocks  are  soluble  in  rain 


—  199  — 

water  and  some  are  not.  The  soluble  parts 
are  slowty  dissolved  under  the  action  of  the 
atmospheric  water  and  the  rock  breaks  down 
into  soil.  The  above  is  the  chemical  effect  of 
rain-water  in  forming  soils,  but  in  high  lati- 
tudes and  mountainous  regions,  atmospheric 
water  disintegrates  rocks  mechanically.  In 
wet  seasons,  rain-water  penetrates  into  the 
fissures  of  rocks  to  great  depths,  and  freez- 
ing, breaks  asunder  the  massive  blocks  into 
fragments,  and  these  again  into  smaller 
portions  until  all  crumble  into  dust. 

Atmospheric  water  acts  chemically  upon 
the  rocks,  decomposing  them  and  producing 
soil.  But  water  acts  mechanically  upon  the 
crust  of  the  earth  as  a  soil  remover  or  sur- 
face leveler.  The  mechanical  agency  of 
water  in  soil-removal  may  be  regarded  under 
the  heads  of  river,  ocean  and  ice;  and  each 
of  these  agencies  may  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  erosion,  transportation  and  deposit. 

Atmospheric  water  is  constantly  falling 
on  the  earth's  surface  in  the  form  of  rain. 
A  portion  of  this  water  sinks  into  the  earth, 
decomposing  rock  and  forming  soil,  and 
then  comes  up  again  to  the  surface  through 
the  medium  of  springs.  Another  portion 
of  this  rain  runs  along  the  earth's  uneven 
surface  and  down  the  slopes  of  hills,  cutting 
furrows  and  forming  rills.     Rills  unite  and 


—  200  — 

form  rivulets  and  streamlets,  and  these 
again  uniting,  form  rivers. 

All  running  water  carries  away  soil  in 
more  or  less  abundance  according  to  its  size 
and  velocity.  The  rivers  unload  their  freight 
of  soil  and  fragments  of  rocks  in  lakes  and 
seas.  Thus  all  the  lands  of  the  earth  are 
being  constantly  washed  away  and  carried 
to  the  sea  by  the  action  of  rain  and  rivers. 
It  is  computed  that  all  land-surfaces  are 
thus  being  cut  awa}^  by  rain  and  river  ero- 
sion at  an  average  rate  for  the  whole  earth 
of  one  foot  in  5,000  3^ears.  And  as  the  mean 
height  of  land  over  the  ocean  for  all  the 
earth  is  1200  feet,  it  vv^ould  require  6,000,000 
years  to  perfectl}^  level  the  globe. 

So  much  for  erosion,  now  for  the  trans- 
portation b}^  water.  It  is  well  known  that 
all  rivers  carr}^  along  mud  and  earthy  ma- 
terials in  more  or  less  abundance.  The 
weight  of  the  fragments  of  stone  or  earth 
movable  by  running  water  increases  at  the 
rate  of  the  6th  power  of  the  velocit}^  of  the 
current.  Thus,  if  the  velocity  of  a  stream 
be  increased  ten  times,  its  carrying  force 
will  be  multiplied  one  million  times.  If, 
then,  a  current  be  carr37ing  all  it  can,  the 
least  check  to  its  velocity  will  cause  deposit, 
and  the  least  subsequent  increase  will  en- 
able it  to  again  take  up  deposited  material. 

Sorting  Power  of  Water. — If  we  throw 


—  201  — 

a  few  liandfuls  of  earth  into  a  basin  of  water 
and  allow  it  to  settle  for  a  time,  and  then 
gently  ponr  off  the  Avater,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  materials  of  the  deposit  are  perfect- 
ly assorted.  The  coarse  fragments  will  be 
found  at  the  bottom,  and  the  successive  lay- 
ers will  be  found  finer  and  finer  as  we  ascend 
until  only  very  fine  mud  is  seen  at  the  top. 

If  the  loose  earth  had  been  thrown  into 
running  water,  a  similar  but  really  more 
perfect  assortment  would  be  seen.  The 
ver}^  coarse  material  would  be  found  high  up 
the  stream,  and  as  we  advanced  downward, 
the  deposits  would  be  found  to  be  finer  and 
finer.  Pebbles  are  found  only  in  beds  of 
rapid  torrents,  and  fine  mud  in  those  of  slow- 
1}'  moving  streams. 

Stratification. — Owing  to  the  sorting 
power  of  water,  the  bottoms  and  banks  of 
lakes,  rivers  and  seas  are  made  up  of  la3'ers 
of  materials  of  different  degrees  of  coarse- 
ness, or,  in  a  word,  are  found  to  be  stratified. 
After  every  rain-fall  an  amount  of  earthy 
matter  is  borne  into  the  lake  or  sea,  and  is 
finally  deposited  in  layers,  the  coarsest  par- 
ticles on  the  bottom,  and  the  finest  on  the 
top.  The  mud  carried  into  rivers  by  riv- 
ulets and  after  rains  is  sorted  also,  but  in 
a  different  way,  the  coarser  particles  being 
deposited  higher  up  the  stream  and  the 
finer  lower  down. 


—  202  — 

General  Law. — '^  We  may  therefore  state 
it  as  a  general  law  that  all  deposits  in  water, 
whether  still  water,  as  lakes  and  seas,  or 
running  water,  as  rivers,  are  stratified,  and, 
conversely,  that  all  stratified  materials,  wher- 
ever we  find  them,  whether  near  water  or 
high  up  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  and  in 
whatsoever  condition  we  find  them,  whether 
as  sands  and  muds  or  as  hard  stone,  if  the 
stratification  be  a  true  stratification,  i.  e., 
the  result  of  sorted  material,  has  been  de- 
posited in  water.  Upon  this  very  simple 
law,  nearly  the  whole  of  geological  reasoning 
is  based."     (Le  Conte's  Geology,  page  21.) 

Rivers  ordinarily  rise  in  mountainous 
regions  and  flow  along  in  their  lower  course 
through  flat  plains.  In  flood  seasons,  the 
rivers  overflow  their  banks  and  the  area 
subject  to  the  overflow  is  called  the  flood- 
plain.  The  flood-plains  of  some  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  world  are  very  extensive.  The 
whole  of  Egypt  is  the  flood-plain  of  the 
Nile.  After  every  overflow  the  sedimen- 
tary deposit  becomes  higher  and  higher. 

The  thickness  of  the  Nile  deposit  is  com- 
puted at  forty  feet  in  depth.  Nine  feet 
have  been  placed  there  within  3,000  years. 
The  statue  of  Rameses  II,  is  covered  from 
its  base  to  a  height  of  9  feet  with  the  sedi- 
ment of  the  Nile.  This  is  the  oldest  monu- 
ment   of  civilization  in  the    world.      This 


—  203  — 

then — 3,000  years — is  tlie  higliest  antiquity 
that  can  be  possibly  claimed  b}^  any  monu- 
ment of  civilized  man. 

At  the  mouths  of  all  great  rivers  vast 
quantities  of  mud  are  dumped  into  the  sea. 
This  dumping  process  going  on  for  ages, 
gradually  reclaims  a  portion  of  land  from 
the  empire  of  the  ocean.  The  lands  formed 
in  this  way  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  are  called 
deltas.  These  deltas  are  often  very  exten- 
sive ;  tliat  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  contain- 
ing 10,000  square  miles,  and  the  common 
one  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  20,000 
square -jniles. 

In  great  rivers  flowing  long  distances, 
the  coarse  material  of  their  saturation  is  all 
dropped  high  up  the  stream  and  only  the 
fine  mud  reaches  the  sea,  and  being  slowly 
deposited,  the  stratification  of  deltas  is  al- 
most horizontal.  When  rivers  empty  into 
oceans  having  great  tides,  deltas  are  not 
formed,  on  the  contrar}^,  not  only  is  the 
sediment  of  the  rivers  all  borne  out  to  sea, 
but  also  great  portions  of  the  beds  and  banks 
are  carried  seaward,  causing  estuaries.  Del- 
tas are  only  found  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
empt3nng  into  tideless  seas. 

Agency  of  the  Ocean. — Another  great 
factor  in  land  erosion,  although  much  less 
in  its  aggregate  effect  than  rivers  and  rains, 


—  204  — 

are  tlie  waves  and  tides  of  old  ocean  beating 
against  exposed  shores. 

The  eastern  coast  of  England  is  disappear- 
ing at  the  rate  of  3  to  5  feet  yearly,  man^^ 
islands  in  the  German  Ocean  have  entirel}- 
vanished,  Heligoland  is  nearly  gone,  and 
the  coast  of  Norway  is  being  eaten  rapidl}^ 
away.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  the 
tides  and  waves  of  ocean  add  to  the  land  in 
many  places.  In  fact  what  is  lost  to  one 
place,  is  carried  to  and  deposited  in  another 
place. 

Land  made  by  the  ocean  waves  has  char- 
acteristic marks  to  distinguish  it.  The  ma- 
terial is  usually  round-grained  sand,  shingle 
or  gravel;  and  the  layers  irregular  and  in- 
clined, are  often  impressed  with  rain-drops, 
animal  tracks  and  ripple  marks.  Old  shore- 
lines of  past  geological  epochs  are  recognized 
by  these  marks,  and  are  often  found  now  in 
rocks  far  inland  and  high  up  on  mountain 
sides. 

GivACiERvS.^Glaciers  have  had  quite  a 
strong  agency  in  sculpturing  out  the  earth's 
surface.  •  Glaciers  are  ice-rivers  running 
slowly  down  the  sides  of  snow-capped  moun- 
tains into  the  valleys  beneath  and  carrying 
along  with  them  immense  quantities  of  debris 
of  every  kind,  great  fragments  of  stone,  loose 
earthy  matter,  vegetation  and  tree-trunks. 

Icebergs. — In  high  latitudes  glaciers  run 


—  205  — 

out  into  the  sea,  and  portions  are  broken  off 
by  the  waves  and  borne  away  upon  the  ocean 
currents.  These  floating  fragments  are  ice- 
bergs. They  are  loaded  with  debris  of  every 
kind,  and  reaching  warmer  latitudes,  are 
melted,  depositing  their  burdens  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  In  this  way  they  are  a 
factor  in  shaping  the  earth's  crust. 

Aqueous  agencies  are  principalh^  mechan- 
ical, but  the\^  are  also  partially  chemical. 
Rocks  are  dissolved  by  water  and  the  soluble 
material,  soil,  is  brought  to  the  surface  by 
springs. 

All  rain  water  has  carbonic  acid  gas  (CO2) 
in  solution.  Water  thus  impregnated,  en- 
tirely corrodes  and  dissolves  limestone  rock. 
Thus,  in  many  countries  whole  strata  of 
limestone  have  been  eaten  away,  leaving  vast 
caverns  filled  with  limestone  drippings  in 
the  form  of  pillars,  pilasters,  stalactites  and 
stalagmites.  Alineral  springs  carrying  to 
the  surface  soluble  mineral  water,  deposit 
it.  Immense  deposits  of  this  kind  are  found 
in  many  countries,  covering  miles  in  extent, 
and  are  hundreds  of  feet  thick.  In  this  way 
have  been  formed  vast  quarries  of  travertine 
and  calcareous  tufa,  great  veins  of  silica, 
sulphur  and  iron  oxides ;  and  by  the  drying 
up  of  mineral  lakes,  immense  beds  of  salt, 
alkalines  and  borax. 

Organic    Agencies. —  Organic    agencies 


—  206  — 

have  performed  an  important  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  earth's  crust.  In  one  way 
these  agencies  are  the  most  important  of  all, 
as  the  fossils  of  animals  and  plants  found 
embedded  in  the  strata  of  the  earth's  crust 
have  written  the  most  delicate  and  truest 
history  of  our  planet. 

Peat-bogs  and  peat-swamps  are  very  ex- 
tensive in  cool,  moist  climates.  These  bogs 
and  swamps  are  the  accumulations  of  disin- 
tegrated vegetables,  rushes,  shrubs  and  trees 
during  vast  ages.  Their  composition  is 
chiefly  carbon,  as  most  of  the  gaseous  ele- 
ments of  the  original  plants  have  been  lost, 
passing  into  the  atmosphere. 

Peat  is  often  found  in  the  deltas  of  great 
rivers  in  layers,  alternating  with  river-silt. 
The  plants  and  trees  w^ere  borne  down  in 
great  floods  and  deposited  in  the  delta  and 
then  covered  up  by  the  silt  coming  on  later. 

This  peaty  substance,  when  covered  deeply 
with  mud  and  sand,  and  subject  to  great 
pressure,  has  in  many  places  been  converted 
into  immense  coal-seams  and  great  beds  of 
lignite. 

Corals. — A  large  area  has  been  reclaimed 
from  the  sea  and  added  to  the  land  as  coral 
reefs  and  islands.  These  reefs  and  islands 
are  really  immense  accumulations  of  lime- 
stone, deposited  by  millions  upon  millions 


—  207  — 

of  soft  pol^^ps,  actinia,  sea-anemones  or 
zoophytes. 

Coral  is  formed  by  the  secretion  of  cal- 
careous matter  or  limestone  from  sea  water 
by  these  little  animals.  The  zoophyte  has 
no  organ  of  sense.  They  can  multiply  by 
buds  and  eggs.  They  are  of  the  type  of 
the  radiates,  have  a  cylindrical  body  with  a 
moiith  at  one  extremity  surrounded  by  ten- 
tacles. 

Coral  formation  is  of  great  interest  to  the 
geologists  also,  because  it  is  an  evidence  of 
crust  movements  on  a  grand  scale. 

The  polyp  takes  sea  water  into  its  mouth 
by  means  of  the  tentacles,  and  digests  lime 
carbonate. 

Reef-building  corals  will  grow  only  under 
restricted  conditions.  They  will  not  thrive 
in  an  ocean  temperature  of  less  than  68*^ 
Fahr.  On  the  shores  of  Florida,  the  Baha- 
mas and  the  Bermudas  they  grow  in  a  high 
latitude  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  warm 
Gulf  Stream. 

They  will  not  grow  in  a  depth  of  ocean 
beyond  one  hundred  feet.  They  must  have 
salt  water,  as  they  are  killed  by  mud  and  by 
fresh  water.  They  thrive  best  where  ex- 
posed to  the  waves  of  old  ocean. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean  there  are  three  kinds 
of  coral  reefs  ;  fringing,  barrier  and  circular 
(atolls)  reefs.     About  high  volcanic  islands 


—  208  — 

we  find  fringing  reefs.  Corals  build  aronnd 
the  islands,  limited  outward  by  depth  and 
inward  by  the  shore  and  upward  by  sea- 
level.  The  corals  build  a  platform  or  fringe 
around  the  island. 

Around  some  of  these  volcanic  islands 
there  may  be  no  reef,  but  at  a  distance  of 
from  five  to  fifteen  miles  is  often  found  a 
rampart  of  corals  going  completely  around 
the  island  and  separated  from  it  by  a  chan- 
nel many  fathoms  deep.  There  are  many 
circular  reefs  or  atolls  in  the  Pacific.  «  These 
reefs  seem  to  have  grown  up  from  the  great 
sea-bottom  without  the  aid  of  an  island. 
The  reef  encloses  a  lagoon  of  still  water  of 
an  irregular  circular  form.  There  is  neither 
volcanic  island  nor  land  of  any  kind  in  the 
interior. 

Whence  came  the  barrier  reefs  and  atolls? 
Darwin's  theory  is  the  one  generally  ac- 
cepted by  geologists.  He  claims  that  the 
atolls  and  barrier  reefs  were  at  first  fringing 
reefs.  That  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  has  been 
gradually  sinking,  carrying  the  volcanic 
islands  with  it,  forming  first  barrier  reefs, 
and  later,  atolls.  If  the  ocean  bed  had  sub- 
sided too  rapidly,  the  corals  would  have 
been  carried  down  below  a  depth  of  one 
hundred  feet  and  drowned.  The  subsidence 
was  just  as  fast  as  the  coral  ground  grew 
upward,    and    thus    the    living  corals   kept 


—  200  — 

themselvCvS  above  the  liundred  feet  limit. 
In  tlie  mean  time,  however,  the  island  was 
sinking  with  the  ocean  bed,  and  gradually 
separated  from  the  fringe  of  corals,  and  grew 
smaller  and  smaller  until  it  formed  the  bar- 
rier reef  and  finally  disappeared  and  left 
the  atoll. 

The  amount  of  sea-bottom  subsiding  is 
computed  at  12,000,000  sqviare  miles.  The 
amount  of  (volcanic  and  coral  islands)  lost 
or  carried  down  below  the  ocean  surface,  is 
estimated  at  many  hundred  thousand  square 
miles.  The  amount  of  the  actual  subsidence 
is  placed  at  10,000  feet.  The  rate  of  sink- 
ing cannot  exceed  the  rate  of  coral  growth, 
or  the  corals  would  have  been  all  drowned. 
The  rate  at  which  coral  ground  rises,  is 
placed  at  one  quarter  to  one  half  inch  \^early. 
Thus,  for  a  subsidence  of  10,000  feet,  it 
would  require  in  the  neighborhood  of  500,000 
years. 

An  ocean  bed  of  many  millions  of  miles 
in  area  has  sunk  down  several  thousand  feet. 
This  sinking  has  been  going  on  for  im- 
mense ages  and  is  still  going  on.  This  vast 
downward  movement  demands  an  upward 
One  to  maintain  an  equilibrium  of  the  earth's 
crust.  The  western  portion  of  the  Ameri- 
can Continent  has  been  gradualh^  elevated 
about  20,000  feet  during  the  present  and 
latter  part  of  the  Tertiary  epoch.     It  is  very 


—  210  — 

likely  that  the  sinking  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
floor  and  the  elevation  of  the  American  Con- 
tinent are  connected  together  in  preserving 
the  crust  equilibrium  of  our  planet. 

Besides  coral  deposits  there  are  also  im- 
mense limestone  deposits  from  Molluscous 
and  Microscopic  shells. 

The  agencies  thus  far  considered,  are 
levelling  ones,  and  tend  to  cut  down  the 
land  and  fill  the  ocean  or  make  a  universal 
ocean. 

There  is,  however,  an  other  class  of  agen- 
cies called  igneous,  the  tendency  of  which 
is  to  upheave  or  elevate  the  earth's  surface 
unevenly.  The  actual  shape  of  the  earth's 
crust  is  the  resultant  of  these  forces  of  lev- 
eling and  upheaving. 

There  is  a  dispute  between  astronomers 
and  geologists  regarding  the  interior  heat 
of  the  earth.  Very  many  geologists  claim 
that  the  earth's  interior  is  a  molten  mass 
of  fire.  Astronomers  claim  that  the  mechan- 
ical principle  of  tides  requires  a  rigidity  in 
the  earth  equal  to  that  of  steel. 

All  agree,  however,  that  there  are  vast 
quantities  of  heat  within  the  earth.  This 
heat  causes  volcanoes,  earthquakes  and  vi- 
brations of  the  earth's  crust. 

Volcanoes. — Taking  the  whole  globe, 
volcanoes  are  very  numerous.  Humboldt 
counted  225  as  active  during  the  past  cen- 


—  211  — 

tury.  Volcanoes  most  frequently  are  found 
in  islands  of  the  ocean,  or  on  lands  border- 
ing on  the  sea.  The  greatest  groups  are  in 
Java,  Iceland,  the  Hawaiian  islands  and  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mediteranean. 

Taking  the  world  over,  the  mass  of  mat- 
ter erupted  by  volcanic  action  is  truly  enor- 
mous. Immense  quantities  of  steam  issue 
forth  in  volcanic  eruptions,  audit  is  thought 
to  be  the  chief  agent  of  eruption. 

How  the  heat  is  generated  or  occasioned 
that  causes  the  production  of  the  steam  and 
melted  matter,  is  a  source  of  much  dispute. 

One  of  the  safest  opinions  is  that  the  heat 
is  in  a  great  measure  generated  by  chemical 
action,  water  meeting  and  combining  with 
the  metaloids ;  and  the  friction  of  mechan- 
ical crushing  caused  by  the  enormous  pres- 
sure of  the  crust. 

Earthquakes. — Earthquakes  are  agents 
in  shaping  the  earth's  crust.  The  earth- 
quake may  be  but  a  slight  tremor  or  a  most 
violent  movement  of  the  crust,  destro^dng 
whole  cities  and  throwing  great  massive 
bodies  high  in  the  air.  For  the  whole  earth 
they  are  quite  frequent  and  may  be  said  to 
average  one  in  every  hour  for  the  year 
around.  The  movement  may  be  straight  up 
and  down,  from  side  to  side,  obliquely  or 
twisting.  The  movement  begins  at  a  centre 
called  the  epicentrum,  and  thence  spreads 


—  212  — 

in  all  directions  just  like  waves  when  a  stone 
is  thrown  into  a  pool  of  water. 

The  cause  of  earthquakes  is  still  more  or 
less  obscure.  Some  of  them  are  caused  by 
great  volcanic  explosions,  but  the  mighty 
ones  are  associated  to  the  settling  down  of 
the  earth's  crust. 

There  are  mighty  forces  operating  in  the 
earth's  interior,  elevating  the  earth's  crust 
in  places  and  depressing  it  in  others,  and 
crushing  the  different  portions  together 
where  the  crust  gives  way  at  weak  points. 
These  crushings  often  break  the  crust,  form- 
ing great  fissures  and  producing  violent 
motions  of  the  surface. 

These  quakes  frequently  occur  in  the  beds 
of  oceans  as  indicated  by  the  mighty  tidal 
waves,  50  to  60  feet  high,  that  often  strike 
the  shores  and  produce  great  destruction. 

It  is  now  known  that  there  are  forces 
elevating  and  depressing  the  earth's  crust, 
acting  slowly  and  gradually,  and  perceptible 
through  their  effects  only  after  the  closest 
observation.  These  are  the  real  forces  that 
have  caused  all  the  great  inequalities  of  the 
earth's  surface.  Whenever  the  crust  yields 
suddenly  under  the  resultant  of  these  forces, 
we  have  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes. 

But  those  slow  but  mighty  forces  have 
been  at  work    for  vast   epochs.     Normally 


—  213  — 

these  forces  are  so  slow,  that  the  crust  3aelds 
gradually,  and  there  is  no  sudden  crash. 

During  a  vast  period  of  time,  there  has 
been  a  gradual  elevating  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can Continent  out  of  the  ocean.  Old  beach 
marks  are  now  found  as  high  as  1300  feet 
above  the  sea-level  and  extending  easterly 
along  the  coast  line  for  iioo  miles,  and 
westerl}^  2,000  miles.  And  dead  corals  stick- 
ing to  the  rocks  3,000  feet  above  water  mark, 
have  been  found  on  the  same  coast.  There 
are  also  the  clearest  evidences  of  up  and 
down  movements  along  the  Italian  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Cliffs  on  the  coast,  and 
the  columns  of  the  bridge  of  Caligula  are 
bored,  several  feet  above  the  present  sea- 
level,  with  holes  made  by  the  lithodomi,  a 
species  of  marine-boring  shell,  and  the  tem- 
ple of  the  Nymphs  is  now  under  water. 

Scandinavia  has  been  for  long  ages  rising 
bodily  out  of  the  sea,  at  the  average  rate  of 
from  2  to  3  feet  per  century.  Old  beach 
marks  as  high  as  600  feet  above  sea-level 
are  evidences  of  this. 

Greenland  is  slowly  but  gradually  sub- 
siding. This  fact  is  recognized  by  the  Es- 
quimaux, who  never  build  near  the  sea-level. 

In  river  deltas  and  other  places  where  vast 
loads  of  sediment  have  accumulated,  there 
are  evidences  of  subsidence,  as  if  the  crust 
was  there  weighed  down   with   its  mighty 


—  214  — 

load.  And,  as  already  stated,  in  tlie  great 
bed  of  the  Pacific  over  an  area  of  10,000,000 
square  miles,  there  has  been  an  average  sub- 
sidence of  10,000  feet  as  shown  by  the  testi- 
mony of  coral  formation. 

It  would  seem  then  that  the  principal 
inequalities  of  our  planet's  surface  have 
been  caused  by  a  slow  cooling  and  unequal 
contracting  of  the  crust. 

Though  the  effects  of  these  two  kinds  of 
agencies,  elevating  and  leveling,  are  almost 
insignificant  at  the  present  time,  yet  wdien 
continued  through  immense  ages,  their  re- 
sult would  be  enormous  and  amply  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  earth's  present  shape. 

We  have  thus  far  considered  the  combi- 
nation of  forces,  that,  after  continuous  ages, 
molded  the  earth  into  its  present  form.  The 
next  step  is  to  learn  as  accurately''  as  possi- 
ble the  present  structure  of  our  globe,  and 
the  length  of  time  required  for  its  formation. 


215 


Chapter  XII. 

RESULTS  OF  GEOIvOGY. 

{Present  Strticture.) 

The  figure  of  the  earth  is  generally  regard- 
ed as  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution  or  an  oblate 
spheroid,  having  an  ellipticity  of  ygi.jg",  the 
polar  being  13  miles  shorter  than  the  equa- 
torial radius.  Strictly  speaking,  however, 
the  earth  has  no  purely  geometrical  figure, 
the  nearest  approach  to  its  exact  form  geo- 
metrically, being  an  ellipsoid  of  three  un- 
equal axes.  This  general  form  is  exactly 
that  which  a  molten  fluid  mass  of  matter  of 
the  earth's  size,  and  rotating  on  an  axis 
with  the  earth's  axial  rapidity,  would  inevi- 
tably assume.  This  general  form  of  the 
earth  is  taken  at  the  sea-level,  the  continents 
rising  on  an  average  1200  or  1300  feet  above 
and  the  sea-bottoms  sinking  15,000  or  16,000 
feet  below  this  level. 

The  space  occupied  by  the  oceans  being 
three  times  as  extensive  as  that  by  the  land, 
if  the  earth's  surface  could  be  perfectly 
leveled  off,  water  would  cover  the  globe  en- 
tirely around  to  a  depth  of  about  tw^o  miles. 

The  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  5.55 
times  that  of  water  ;  the  density  of  the  crust 
being  2.5  times,  and  of  the  central  parts 
probably  16  times  that  of  water. 


—  216  — 

What  is  known  as  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
is  estimated  at  about  an  average  of  20  miles 
in  thickness.  Our  knowledge  of  this  thick- 
ness of  crust  has  been  collected  from  deep 
borings,  canons,  volcanic  ejections  and  faults, 
or  crust  foldings  followed  by  erosion.  Our 
chief  geological  knowledge  has  come  from 
this  last  source,  as  strata  have  been  eaten 
away  by  erosion  to  depths  of  more  than  ten 
miles. 

Rocks. — In  geology,  the  term  "rock" 
signifies  any  substance,  hard  or  soft,  con- 
stituting a  portion  of  the  earth's  crust.  In 
geology,  the  distinction  of  stony  hardness 
or  plastic  softness  is  of  no  value.  Rocks  are 
divided  into  the  stratified  and  unstratified. 

Stratified  rocks  are  of  aqueous  origin  and 
have  been  generally  formed  by  sedimentary 
consolidation. 

Unstratified  rocks  are  those  of  igneous 
origin,  are  more  or  less  fused,  and  of  a  crys- 
talline structure. 

Stratified  Rocks. — In  examining  great 
beds  of  sandstone  and  limestone,  the  stones 
are  found  to  lie  in  regular  layers.  In  great 
plains  or  level  regions,  the  layers  are  level 
or  horizontal  and  in  mountainous  regions 
th.ey  are  inclined  and  often  vertical. 

In  fact  any  great  mass  of  stratified  rock 
is  found  to  be  divided  up  by  parallel  planes 
into  beds  of  different  thickness.    The  thicker 


—  217  — 

beds  are  called  strata.  The  strata  are  di- 
vided by  planes  into  thinner  subdivisions 
called  layers,  and  these  again  into  very  thin 
divisions  or  lines  of  sorted  materials  called 
laminae. 

These  beds  are  all  the  product  of  water- 
sorting,  and  the  structure  is  called  stratifi- 
cation. Nine-tenths  of  the  land-surface  of 
the  earth  is  covered  by  stratified  rocks  and 
where  stratification  is  wanting,  it  has  been 
removed  by  erosion  or  covered  b}^  igneous 
rocks. 

The  extreme  thickness  of  stratification  is 
from  ten  to  twenty  miles,  and  as  stratifica- 
tion virtually  extends  over  the  whole  earth, 
so  there  is  no  portion  of  it  which  has  not 
been  at  some  time  covered  by  the  sea. 

Stratified  rocks  are  for  the  most  part  con- 
solidated sedimentary  deposits. 

The  laminae  of  sandstones  and  shales, 
when  closely  examined,  show  the  water- 
sorting  of  materials.  The  fossils  of  the 
shells  and  skeletons  of  animals  are  found  in 
the  stratified  rocks.  Ripple-marks,  rain- 
prints,  foot-prints  of  animals  are  found  in 
the  stou}'  matter  of  stratified  rocks.  In  these 
stratified  rocks,  in  fact,  are  found  every 
mark,  character  and  peculiarity  which  have 
been  observed  in  recent  sedimentary  de- 
posits. 

Stratified,  rocks,  then,  wherever  found,  in 


—  218  — 

tlie  interior  of  continents  or  high  np  on 
mountain  sides,  are  all  sedimentary  deposits 
in  water.  There  is  thus  an  everlasting 
cycle  of  processes  going  on.  Rocks  are  dis- 
integrated and  decomposed  into  soils,  soils 
are  removed  and  deposited  as  sediments, 
sediments  are  hardened  into  rocks,  these 
rocks  are  raised  up  into  surfaces  by  mighty 
forces  and  again  rotted  down  into  soils. 

Stratified  rocks  have  been  formed  slowly 
and  gradually,  and  sometimes  indeed,  with 
extreme  slowness  and  by  the  regular  and 
continual  operation  of  causes  similar  to  those 
now  accumulating  sediments.  The  laminae 
of  some  strata  are  as  thin  as  fine  paper,  and 
each  individual  one  represents  more  or  less 
considerable  lapse  of  time,  such  as  the  flood 
and  low  water  of  rivers  or  the  ebb  and  flow 
of  tides. 

Some  limestone  strata  are  composed  en- 
tirely of  the  remains  of  successive  gener- 
ations of  microscopic  shells,  every  inch 
thickness  of  which  represents  a  long  period 
of  time,  and  yet  these  deposits  are  often 
thousands  of  feet  thick.  Sandy  or  coarser 
materials  are,  however,  more  rapidly  depos- 
ited than  limestone,  still  as  a  rough  rule, 
thickness  is  a  measure  of  time. 

Owing  to  the  manner  in  which  stratified 
rocks  have  been  formed,  namely  from  sedi- 
mentary deposits  in  water,  they  must  have 


—  219  — 

been  originally  horizontal  at  tlie  bottom  of 
water,  and  when  we  find  them  in  other  posi- 
tions and  at  other  levels,  we  natnrally  con- 
clnde  that  subsequent  change  has  caused  it. 

Strata,  however,  must  not  be  likened  to 
perfectly  continuous  and  even  sheets  of 
paper,  but  rather  to  irregular  cakes,  thick 
in  the  middle  and  thinning  out  towards  the 
margins.  Strata  continually  interlap  with 
other  strata.  Sandstones  and  other  coarse 
deposits  are  less  continuous  and  extensive 
than  clays  and  other  finer  materials. 

At  first  the  strata  were  all  horizontal  and 
at  the  bottoms  of  rivers,  lakes  or  seas ;  now, 
however,  we  find  them  in  the  interior  of 
continents  and  far  above  the  sea-level,  some- 
times still  horizontal,  but  generally  more  or 
less  inclined  ;  sometimes,  indeed,  in  moun- 
tain regions,  folded,  crushed,  broken  and 
contorted  in  every  possible  manner.  Com- 
monly, large  portions  of  the  upper  parts  of 
the  strata  that  have  been  crushed  and  dis- 
located, have  been  carried  away  by  erosion, 
leaving  the  edges  exposed.  The  exposed 
edges  of  the  strata  are  called  the  outcrop. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  land-sur- 
faces are  sinking  beneath  the  ocean,  and 
ocean-beds  are  rising  up  to  become  land- 
surfaces.  This  process  has  been  going  on 
throughout  all  geological  times.  It  has 
also  been  seen  that  the  rock}^  strata  of  land- 


—  220  — 

surfaces  are  often  crumpled  and  tilted  and 
so  eroded  that  tlieir  edges  are  exposed.  If 
at  any  time  an  eroded  land-surface  should 
sink  beneath  the  sea,  and  should  sediments 
be  deposited  upon  the  eroded  edges  and  fill 
the  erosion-hollows  of  a  strata,  and  the  whole 
be  again  by  some  agency  raised  above  the 
sea,  we  would  have  what  is  known  as  uncon- 
formity in  the  resulting  formation.  Com- 
monly, but  not  necessarily,  there  would  be 
a  want  of  parallelism  between  the  two  series 
of  the  strata. 

A  series  of  strata  are  said  to  be  conform- 
able, when  they  are  parallel  and  appear  to 
be  formed  continuously  under  similar  con- 
ditions. Two  series  of  strata  are  uncon- 
formable when  they  are  discontinuous  and 
separated  by  an  old  land-surface  or  erosion 
surface,  and  consequently  formed  at  different 
times  and  under  different  conditions. 

The  history  of  the  earth's  surface  is  read 
in  its  stratifications.  A  group  of  conform- 
able strata  ordinarily  form  a  geological 
formation,  and  a  line  of  unconformity  usu- 
ally divides  two  different  geological  forma- 
tions. While  a  place  is  land-surface,  and  is 
being  eroded,  there  can  be  no  strata  formed 
there  at  that  time,  and  it  is  clear  that  a  line 
of  unconformity  indicates  a  period  of  which 
there  is  no  record  at  that  place,  although 
the  record  may  be  found  in  some  other  place. 


—  221  — 

Unconformity  then  represents  a  gap  in  the 
geological  record  of  strata. 

In  classifying  stratified  rocks,  geologists 
have  endeavored  with  the  greatest  care  to 
arrange  the  strata,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  in  the  order  in  which  they  were^ 
formed.  From  the  very  nature  and  manner 
of  sedimentary  deposits,  it  is  clear  that, 
unless  they  have  been  greatly  disturbed, 
their  relative  position  indicates  their  relative 
age,  the  uppermost  strata  or  line  of  sediment 
being  invariably  the  youngest.  It  is,  then, 
an  easy  problem  for  the  geologist  to  make 
out  the  relative  ages  of  the  different  strata, 
composing  a  natural  section  of  an  exposed 
sea-cliff  or  railroad  cut,  either  horizontal  or 
regularly  inclined. 

But  when  the  rocks  by  some  agency  have 
been  crumpled,  folded,  broken,  pushed  be- 
yond the  vertical,  and  a  part  worn  away  by 
erosion,  to  show  their  real  relations,  under 
such  circumstances  is  a  most  difficult  affair. 

Another  element  to  enhance  the  difficulty 
of  the  problem,  is  that  all  the  strata  are  not 
represented  in  au}^  one  place,  but  ordinarily 
only  a  small  fraction. 

In  endeavoring  to  arrange  all  the  strata 
of  the  earth's  surface  according  to  the  age 
of  deposition,  the  geologist  has  then  no  easy 
task,  as  he  finds  in  different  places  only 
small  fragments  of  the  whole. 


—  222  — 

The  order  of  superposition  must,  when  it 
can  be  applied,  take  precedence  of  all  other 
methods,  still  this  method  is  greatly  aided 
by  a  careful  comparison  of  the  rocks  in 
different  places  with  each  other.  There  are 
two  methods  of  comparison,  by  the  character 
of  the  rock  and  the  character  of  the  fossils. 
The  method  of  comparison  by  rock-character 
is  only  of  value  in  contiguous  places.  In 
widely  separated  places,  it  is  of  no  value,  as 
sandstone,  clay,  limestone  and  chalk  of  the 
same  grain,  color  and  composition  have 
been  found  in  all  epochs. 

We  cannot  conclude  that  rocks  are  of  the 
same  age,  because  they  are  similar  in  ap- 
pearance. The  most  valuable  and  safest 
method  of  determining  the  age  of  rocks,  is 
by  comparison  of  the  fossils.  If  these  are 
similar  in  species,  it  is  generally  concluded, 
making  proper  allowances,  that  the  rocks  in 
which  they  are  found  belong   to  the  same 

Geologists  all  over  the  world,  working  in 
harmony,  have  succeeded  in  making  a  fairly 
complete  chronology  of  the  strata  of  the 
earth's  crust.  Breaks  in  one  place,  are  filled 
by  strata  in  another.  The  more  perfectly 
the  earth's  surface  is  studied,  the  completer 
will  this  chronology  become.  And  hence, 
new  discoveries  will  bring  new  improve- 
ments. 


—  223—  % 

The  following  is  a  generalized  schedule 
of  the  divisions  of  the  rocky  strata  of  our 
planet's  crust :  Laurentian,  Huronian,  Pri- 
mordial, Canadian,  Trenton,  Niagara,  Salina, 
Helderberg,  Oriskany,  Corniferous,  Hamil- 
ton, Chemung,  Catskill,  Subcarboniferous, 
Carboniferous,  Permian,  Triassic,  Jurassic, 
Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  Quaternay,  Human. 

Igneous  Rocks. — Igneous  rocks  are  de- 
rived by  cooling  and  crystallization  from 
fused  material.  All  that  is  necessary  to  say 
about  them  here,  is  that  they  have  neither 
stratification  nor  fossils. 

An  intermediate  series  of  rocks  between 
the  stratified  and  igneous,  are  the  Metamor- 
phic,  but  as  they  are  devoid  of  fossils,  they 
too  may  be  passed  over  without  considera- 
tion here. 

Sedimentation  is  the  aggregate  sum  of 
sedimentary  deposits  and  denudation,  its 
correlative  term,  that  of  erosion.  Rain  and 
rivers  are  the  chief  agents  of  erosion.  Waves 
and  tides  produce  about  the  one-fifth  of  the 
erosive  effect  of  rain  and  rivers.  Snow  and 
glaciers  are  erosive  agents,  but  they  are 
classed  with  rain  and  rivers. 

In  order  to  compute  roughly  the  time 
required  to  give  the  earth's  surface  its  pres- 
ent shape,  it  wall  be  necessary  to  compute 
the  whole  amount  of  denudation,  that  has 


^  —  224  — 

taken  place  in  geological  time,  and  the  rate 
of  rain  and  river  erosion.  . 

The  anionnt  of  denudation  is  determined 
by  geologists  in  a  variety  of  ways.  One 
method  is  from  the  examination  of  faults. 
Fissures  are  great  fractures  of  the  earth's 
strata  by  crust-movements.  As  has  been 
already  noticed,  portions  of  the  earth's  crust 
are  frequently  subjected  to  powerful  hori- 
zontal pressure,  by  which  it  is  mashed  to- 
gether. These  bendings  of  the  crust  produce 
enormous  fractures  or  fissures. 

The  walls  of  the  great  fissures  nearly 
always  slip  one  on  the  other,  up  or  down. 
Such  a  displacement  of  the  crust  on  the  two 
sides  of  a  fissure,  is  called  a  fault.  All  the 
surface  indications  of  the  slip,  are  often  en- 
tirely obliterated  by  the  work  of  erosion. 
In  some  faults  the  result  of  erosion  is  very 
great. 

Another,  and  a  still  better  way  of  measur- 
ing erosion,  is  by  the  restoration  of  folded 
strata. 

The  amount  of  general  erosion  is  also 
measured  by  the  amount  of  its  correlative, 
sedimentation.  The  stratified  rocks  of  the 
earth  are  the  debris  of  general  erosions. 
The  average  thickness  of  strata  of  the 
earth's  surface  cannot  certainly  be  less  than 
2,000  feet,  and  as  the  ocean  area  is  three 
times  that  of  the  land,  this  would  necessi- 


—  225  — 

tate  at  least  6,000  feet  erosion  of  all  land 
surfaces.  General  erosion  has  then,  at  the 
least  computation,  removed  6,000  feet  over  all 
land  surfaces.  But  the  rate  of  rain  and  river 
erosion  is  on  an  average  one  foot  in  5,000 
years.  It  would  thus  require  30,000,000 
years  to  accomplish  the  work  of  erosion, 
that  we  actuall}^  find  to  have  been  done. 

What  the  geologist  asks  for  is  time  in 
bringing  the  earth  to  its  present  shape. 
But  this  can  be  granted  without  falsifying 
the  Bible  record. 

There  are  two  interpretations  of  Genesis 
that  admit  the  claims  of  Geologists,  of  a 
great  age  for  the  earth.  One  is  by  giving 
to  the  words:  ''In  the  beginning"  (God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth)  an  in- 
definite length  of  time. 

Matter  was  all  created  in  this  Beginning 
before  the  first  Mosaic  day,  and  afterwards 
fashioned  into  its  different  shapes. 

Some  of  the  greatest  commentators  of  the 
Bible  are  in  favor  of  this  interpretation  of 
an  interval  of  indefinite  duration  between 
the  creation  of  the  w^orld  and  the  first  ]\Iosa- 
ic  day,  as  for  instance,  St.  Basil,  St.  Chry- 
sostom,  St.  Ambrose,  Peter  Lombard,  Hugh 
of  St.  Victor,  St.  Thomas  and  Perrerius. 

Another  interpretation  making  the  Mosaic 
days  vast  periods  of  time,  would  be  in  most 
perfect  accord  with  the  claims  of  geology. 

15 


-226  — 

Some  very  great  commentators  favor  this 
interpretation.  St.  Augustine,  Molina,  Pa- 
tavius.  Venerable  Bede,  St.  Eucherius  and 
St.  Hildegarde  contend  that  the  days  in 
Genesis  must  not  be  regarded  as  ordinary 
days,  but  are  used  for  the  word  time. 

Geology  is  therefore  in  accord  with  two 
legitimate  Biblical  interpretations,  in  regard 
to  the  question  of  time. 


Chapter  XIII. 

RESULTS  OF  GEOLOGY.     (Con.) 
iFoss77s.) 

There  is  nothing  in  the  whole  record  of 
Moses  so  determinedly  combatted  by  a  cer- 
tain class  of  scientists,  as  his  order  of  crea- 
tion. These  scientists  use  as  their  chief 
weapon,  the  testimony  of  fossils.  It  is  thus 
of  vital  importance  to  explain  as  thoroughly 
as  possible  the  character  of  fossils,  and  de- 
termine the  reliability  of  their  testimony. 

Fossil,  a  derivative  of  the  Latin,  fossilis^ 
and  this  irov^  foder-e^  to  dig^  signifies  a  sub- 
stance dug  from  the  earth,  giving  any  evi- 
dence of  the  former  existence  of  a  living 
thing.  Fossils  reveal  the  nature  of  the 
former  inhabitants  of  our  planet. 

Stratified  rocks  are  the  consolidated  sedi- 


—  227  — 

ments  of  former  rivers,  lakes  and  seas. 
In  past  ages  as  at  present,  the  mud  at  the 
bottoms  of  seas  and  rivers  contained  shells, 
branches  and  leaves  of  trees,  and  remains  of 
animals  carried  down  by  currents  and  buried 
there.  These  remains  have  in  different 
ways  been  preserved  to  the  present  time, 
and  are  now  fossils. 

Fossils  are  an  invariable  characteristic  of 
stratified  rocks.  In  rare  instances,  fossils 
are  the  very  organic  matter  of  the  soft  parts 
of  animals,  w^onderfully  preserved.  In  the 
frozen  soil  of  Siberia,  the  bodies  of  extinct 
rhinoceroses  and  elephants  have  been  ex- 
humed by  currents,  so  perfectly  preserved, 
that  wolves  fed  on  the  flesh. 

In  peat-bogs,  too,  which  are  great  anti- 
septics, are  found  well  preserved  skeletons 
of  extinct  animals,  the  organic  substance  of 
the  bones  being  still  retained.  In  other 
cases,  in  peat-bogs,  the  flesh  is  preserved, 
but  has  been  changed  into  the  fatty  sub- 
stance known  as  adipocere. 

As  a  rule,  how^ever,  only  the  form  and 
structure  of  the  shells  and  skeletons  of  ani- 
mals are  preserved,  and  sometimes  the  form 
alone  has  survived. 

The  organic  structure  is  frequently  pre- 
served by  the  process  of  petrifaction.  Pet- 
rified wood  is  the  best  illustration  of  this 
process.       Drift-wood   is    found    completely 


—  228  — 

changed  into  stone  in  many  strata,  and  par- 
ticularly in  lava  beds.  In  these  instances, 
not  only  is  the  general  structure  of  the 
bark,  wood  and  pith  retained,  but  the  minut- 
est tissues  and  markings  are  most  perfectly 
preserved  in  the  stony  matter  that  has 
replaced  the  wood.  In  petrifaction,  the 
substance  of  the  wood  is  replaced  by  stony 
matter,  the  wood,  however,  is  not  turned  to 
stone.  The  best  and  most  common  petrifiers 
are  carbonate  of  lime  and  silica.  As  the 
particles  of  the  woody  substance  pass  away 
by  decay,  particles  of  the  mineral  solution 
are  deposited  in  their  place,  thus  reproducing 
perfectly  in  stone  the  woody  structure. 

Similarly  to  wood,  the  structure  of  bones, 
corals  and  shells  is  preserved,  although  the 
original  matter  has  entirely  disappeared. 

Often  the  structure  is  lost,  and  only  a  cast 
or  mold  of  the  external  form  is  preserved  in 
stone.  This  is  found  to  have  been  preserved 
in  different  ways.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
shells,  the  living  or  recently  dead  shell  was 
buried  in  mud,  and  subsequently  the  organ- 
ism was  completely  dissolved  and  removed, 
leaving  only  the  hollow  case  or  mold  where 
it  lay. 

In  other  instances  the  mold  has  been 
afterwards  filled  and  a  cast  made  by  the 
deposit  of  mineral  solution.  Again  the 
dead,  empty  shell  was  buried  in,  and  filled 


—  229  — 

with  mud,  and  subsequently  tlie  shell  was 
removed  by  solution,  leaving  an  empty  space 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  shell.  Now 
this  hollow  space  corresponding  to  the 
thickness  of  the  shell,  was  afterward  filled 
by  the  deposit  of  soluble  stony  matter. 

Sometimes,  even,  we  find  only  the  mold 
of  a  small  portion  of  the  organism,  such  as 
the  impressions  of  leaves  and  the  foot-prints 
of  animals  left  on  soft  mud,  which  afterward 
hardened. 

All  fossil  traces  are  of  value  because  they 
are  very  characteristic  parts  of  plants  and 
animals. 

The  species  of  the  fossils  we  may  find  in 
the  rocky  strata,  will  depend  on  the  country 
and  on  the  kind  and  age  of  the  rock. 

A  few  words  here,  by  way  of  prelude  to 
fossil  history,  about  how  species  of  plants 
and  animals  now  living  on  the  earth,  are 
distributed  and  the  laws  governing  the  dis- 
tribution of  living  species. 

A  tourist  visiting  different  countries  read- 
ily recognizes  the  great  difference  in  the  na- 
tive plants  and  animals.  He  easily  perceives 
that  the  species  of  the  various  countries  are 
almost  always  entirely  different.  As  a  gen- 
eral fact  it  may  be  said  that  each  country 
has  its  own  native  species,  differing  more  or 
less  markedly  from  those  of  other  countries. 

The    whole   group   of   plants    inhabiting 


—  230  — 

one  place  or  coiintr}^  is  called  its  flora,  and 
of  animals,  its  fauna.  In  regard  to  fauna 
and  flora,  nature  has  set  up  her  natural 
boundaries  or  limitations.  The  chief  nat- 
ural boundaries  are  geographical  and  cli- 
matic. 

A  natural  fauna  or  flora  is  a  natural  group 
of  animals  or  plants  in  one  place,  difl"ering 
from  other  groups  in  other  places  and  sep- 
arated from  them  by  natural  boundaries  of 
a  climatic  or  geographical  character. 

Temperature  is  the  most  important  of 
the  climatic  conditions,  limiting  fauna  and 
flora.  Plants  being  fixed  to  the  soil  arc 
more  strictly  limited  in  regard  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  species  than  animals. 

Elevation  above  the  earth's  surface  and 
latitude  are  the  chief  causes  of  the  change 
of  temperature  conditions.  If,  in  the  first 
place,  we  take  the  case  of  plants  and  select 
a  high  mountain  near  the  seashore  in  a 
tropical  region  we  will  find  there  all  con- 
ditions of  temperature.  Beginning  at  the 
base  of  the  mountain  and  ascending  we  find 
a  region  of  palms  ;  of  hard-wood  ;  of  pines ; 
a  treeless  region;  and  a  plantless  region. 
Similarly  in  regard  to  latitude,  in  going 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  we  find  a 
region  of  palms  in  the  tropics;  a  region  of 
hard-wood  in  the  temperate  zones  ;  a  region 
of  pines  in  the  arctics ;  a  circumpolar  tree- 


—  231  — 

less   region   of   shrubs    and    herbs ;    and    a 
plantless  region  near  the  icy  poles. 

The  spread  or  extension  of  species  is 
limited  by  natural  boundaries  or  barriers. 
All  organic  forms  will  spread  in  all  direc- 
tions, as  far  as  phj^sical  conditions  and  the 
struggle  for  life  will  allow.  The  range  of 
a  species  is  the  area  over  which  it  has 
spread.  The  hardier  a  species  is,  the  greater 
may  be  its  range,  but  the  range  of  a  species 
is  more  limited  than  that  of  its  genus,  and 
the  range  of  a  family,  greater  than  that  of 
its  genera,  and  of  an  order  than  a  famil^^ 

The  several  temperature  regions  graduate 
into  each  other  insensibly.  Species  reach 
their  highest  development  in  vigor  and 
number  about  the  middle  of  their  range, 
gradually  falling  away  on  the  borders. 
They  come  in  and  go  out  graduall}^,  the 
ranges  overlapping  on  their  borders.  ^'  But 
in  specific  character  there  is  no  such  gradu- 
al passage  of  one  species  into  another,  no 
evidence  of  transmutation  of  one  species 
into  another,  nor  of  derivation  of  one  species 
from  another.  From  this  point  of  view, 
species  seem  to  come  in  at  once  in  full 
perfection,  remain  substantially  unchanged 
throughout  their  ranges,  and  pass  out  at 
once  on  the  other  border,  other  species 
taking  their  place  as  if  b}^  substitution, 
not  transmutation.     It  is  as  if  each  species 


—  232  — 

originated,  no  matter  liow,  somewhere  in 
the  region  where  we  find  them,  and  then 
spread  in  all  directions  as  far  as  physical 
conditions  and  struggle  with  other  species 
would  allow."     (Le  Conte,  page  no.) 

Certainly  the  study  of  species  as  we  now 
find  them,  could  not  prove  the  theory  of 
their  origin  by  derivation  or  transmutation. 
Where  no  barriers  exist,  temperature  re- 
gions shade  into  each  other.  Species  will 
be  found  distinct  and  without  any  overlap- 
ping of  each  other  where  there  are  great 
natural  barriers,  such  as  mountain  chains, 
seas  and  deserts. 

It  is  also  found  that  although  on  lofty 
mountains  in  the  tropics,  the  same  range 
of  temperature  exists  as  in  high  latitudes, 
still  the  species  are  always  entirely  different 
because  the  torrid  zone  acts  as  an  impassable 
barrier  and  prevents  migration.  Thiis  spe- 
cies invariably  originate  each  in  its  own 
place  and  has  been  prevented  from  over- 
lapping or  mingling  by  the  presence  of 
impassable  barriers. 

Animal  species,  like  plants,  exist  in  tem- 
perature zones,  but  cannot  be  so  simply 
arranged  as  that  great  classes  correspond 
to  great  zones.  Zonal  arrangements  of 
families  cannot  be  as  easily  made  with  ani- 
mals as  plants  ;  but  if  we  confine  ourselves 
to  species  or  genera  in  general,  animals  are 


OQO 


—  23 

subject  to  the  same  laws  of  distribution  as 
plants.  Thus  :  All  animal  species  are  lim- 
ited in  range ;  the  range  of  species  is  less 
extensive  than  that  of  genera,  and  of  gen- 
era than  of  families,  and  of  families  than 
orders ;  Contiguous  ranges  graduate  into 
each  other  by  overlapping  on  the  borders; 
Each  species  reaches  its  greatest  vigor  and 
abundance  in  the  middle  region  and  dies  out 
on  the  borders.  In  specific  character  they 
remain  essentially  the  same  throughout  their 
range  and  do  not  transmute  or  change  into 
other  species  on  the  borders.  Physical  con- 
ditions may  limit  their  range,  but  do  not 
change  them  into  other  species,  though  vari- 
eties may  be  formed  in  this  way.  With 
animals  as  with  plants,  species  originate  in 
the  places  we  find  them  and  spread  in  all 
directions  as  far  as  pltysical  conditions  and 
the  struggle  with  other  species  will  allow. 

The  faunas  and  floras  of  the  different  con- 
tinents of  the  globe  are  substantially  differ- 
ent, owing  to  the  existence  of  the  great 
ocean  barriers  interposed  between  them.  If 
there  were  no  such  impassable  barriers,  the 
faunas  and  floras  of  the  earth  would  be  ar- 
ranged in  temperature  zones  from  the  equa- 
tor to  the  poles,  containing  the  same  species 
all  around. 

The  various  species  seem  to  have  origi- 
nated  on    the    continents    where    they    are 


284  — 


found  and  have  been  prevented  by  impassable 
barriers  from  overlapping  or  intermingling. 

There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this.  Har- 
dy species  that  migrate  widely,  sometimes 
pass  over  from  continent  to  continent ;  in- 
troduced species  that  have  grown  wild ;  and 
Alpine  species. 

The  whole  earth  has  been  inhabited  at 
different  times  b}^  entirely  different  species. 
All  the  animals  and  plants  inhabiting  the 
earth  at  one  time,  are  called  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  that  geological  time.  We  have  thus 
a  fauna  and  flora  of  the  Devonian,  Jurassic 
and  Tertiary  times. 

It  is  found  as  a  general  principle  that  the 
change  from  one  geological  fauna  to  another 
is  gradual  when  the  strata  are  conformable, 
but  on  the  contrar}^  that  a  line  of  uncon- 
formity usually  abruptly  separates  two 
faunas. 

A  series  of  conformable  strata,  in  which 
the  fossil  species  are  either  the  same  or 
change  very  gradually,  are  called  a  forma- 
tion, and  the  time  during  which  such  a 
formation  has  been  laid  down  is  known  as 
a  geological  period. 

Unconformity  of  the  strata  and  trenchant 
change  in  the  species  are  the  great  tests 
determining  the  limits  of  a  geological  forma- 
tion and  a   geological  period.       The  latter 


—  235  — 

test  is  regarded  by  geologists  as  the  more 
valuable. 

It  is  considered  by  geologists  as  an  estab- 
lished fact  that  in  the  successive  changes 
of  geological  species  as  manifested  by  their 
fossils  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the 
present  there  is  a  steady  approach  to  living 
forms  both  in  families,  genera  and  species 
in  the  order  named. 

Not  until  the  Tertiary  period  do  species 
begin  to  be  identical  with  the  living  species, 
and  thence  onward  w^e  have  an  increasing 
percentage,  identical  with  the  living. 

Rocks,  all  the  world  over,  are  known  to 
belong  to  the  same  time  by  the  general  sim- 
ilarity of  their  fossil  species.  There  is 
found  but  little  difficult}^  in  appl^ang  this 
rule  up  to  the  Tertiary  period,  when  the 
geographical  diversity  begins  to  be  so  great 
as  to  materially  interfere  with  the  general 
similarity. 

But  beginning  with  the  Tertiary  another 
principle  is  put  in  use,  the  percentage  of  the 
fossil  species  still  living  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  The  same  age  is  indicated  b}^ 
similar  percentage,  less  age  by  greater  per- 
centage and  greater  age  by  less  percentage. 

The  geologist  endeavors  to  form  as  perfect 
a  chronology  as  he  possibly  can  of  the  order 
of  formation  of  the  earth's  crust  by  classi- 
fying   the   strata   or  arranging  them   from 


—  236  — 

lowest  to  highest,  in  the  order  in  which 
they  were  formed  or  laid  down  ;  and  then  to 
separate  them  into  groups  and  sub-groups 
for  convenient  treatment. 

From  the  manner  in  which  sediments  are 
formed  it  is  very  evident,  that,  if  they  have 
not  been  greatly  disturbed,  their  relative 
ages  are  indicated  by  their  relative  position ; 
the  uppermost  being  always  the  youngest. 
It  is,  then,  an  easy  matter  to  make  out  the 
relative  ages  of  a  natural  section  of  strata 
where  we  find  them  regularly  inclined  or 
horizontal  and  undisturbed. 

But  when  the  rocks  are  discovered  to  be 
folded,  crumpled,  broken,  slipped  and  par- 
tially eaten  away  b}^  erosion,  to  make  an  ideal 
section  showing  their  real  relation  to  one 
another  in  the  matter  of  age  is  a  difficult 
problem ;  and  the  difficulty  is  enhanced  by 
the  fact  that  all  the  strata  are  not  repre- 
sented in  one  place.  Only  a  fraction,  and 
indeed,  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole  is  usu- 
ally found  in  one  place. 

The  order  of  superposition  takes  preced- 
ence of  all  other  methods  in  determining 
the  ages  of  the  rocks  where  it  can  be  applied, 
still  it  is  well  to  supplement  it  by  a  careful 
comparison  of  the  rocks  in  different  local- 
ities with  each  other.  There  are  two  means 
of  comparison,  by  the  character  of  the  rock 
and  the  character  of  the  fossils.    The  method 


—  237  — 

of  comparison  by  rock-character  is  not  of 
much  assistance  except  in  contiguous  local- 
ities. Sandstones,  clays,  limestones,  coal 
and  even  chalk  belong  to  nearly  all  times, 
and  are  forming  now. 

Groups  of  similar  rocks  and  in  contiguous 
localities  are  probably  of  the  same  age.  But 
for  rocks  of  similar  grain,  composition  and 
color,  in  different  continents,  we  can  not  use 
this  method. 

But  the  most  valuable  and  general  means 
of  determining  the  age  of  rocks  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  is  by  the  comparison  of  their 
fossils.  Whenever  we  find  a  general  simi- 
larity of  species,  we  conclude  that  the  rocks 
belong  to  the  same  age.  Allowances  must, 
however,  be  made  for  difference  of  conditions 
of  deposit,  whether  shore,  deep-sea,  fresh- 
water or  marine  deposit. 

Geographical  diversity  must  be  also  con- 
sidered. In  the  fossils  of  rocks  in  different 
continents,  absolute  identity  should  not  be 
sought,  but  only  general  similarity. 

The  nature  of  the  fossils,  then,  determine 
the  age  of  the  rocks.  Fossils  of  different 
species  are  found  in  rocks  of  different  ages. 
As  a  universal  and  fixed  rule,  when  we  know 
the  fossil  species,  we  know  the  ages  of  the 
rocks. 

The  testimony  of  the  fossils  has  been 
regarded   as   the    strongest    weapon    in   the 


arsenal  of  the  evolutionists  to  prove  their 
pet  theory.  However,  when  truly  and  im- 
partially given,  the  evidence  of  fossils  is 
really  strongly  against  the  transmutation  of 
one  species  into  another ;  is  in  fact  an  ab- 
solute contradiction  of  it  and  demonstrates 
a  separate  creation.  This  will  be  seen  better 
under  the  headings  of  Biology  and  Anthro- 
pology. Still  the  proper  place  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  fossils  is  here  under  the  head  of 
Geology. 


Chapter  XIV. 

RESULTS  OF  GEOLOGY.     (Con.) 
{Testimony  of  the  Fossils.) 

The  fossil  history  of  the  earth  is  divided 
into  seven  ages,  each  characterized  by  the 
dominance  of  some  particular  class  of  ani- 
mals or  plants.  Each  fossil  age  corresponds 
to  a  separate  S3^stem  of  rocks.  We  have, 
for  instance,  an  age  of  Acrogen  plants,  an 
age  of  reptiles,  an  age  of  mammals,  in  which 
Acrogens,  reptiles  and  mammals  are  the 
dominant  types. 

In  geology  it  is  found  that  each  dominant 
class  culminates  and  declines,  it  does  not 
entirely  perish,  but  only  becomes  subordi- 
nated to  the  incoming  and  higher  dominant 
class. 


—  239  — 

The  following  are  the  fossil  ages  and  cor- 
responding rock  S3'Stenis :  Archaean  age, 
corresponding  to  the  Eozoic  (dawn  of  animal 
life)  rocks  (Laurentian  and  Hnronian);  Age 
of  Mollnsks,  or  age  of  Invertebrates,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Silurian  rocks ;  the  Age  of 
^Fishes,  corresponding  to  the  Devonian  ;  the 
Age  of  Acrogen  Plants,  corresponding  to 
the  Carboniferous ;  the  Age  of  Reptiles, 
corresponding  to  the  secondary  rocks  ;  the 
Age  of  Mammals,  corresponding  to  the  Ter- 
tiary and  Quaternary  rocks ;  and  the  Age  of 
Man,  corresponding  to  the  present  sediment- 
ary deposits. 

The  Archaean  (ancient,  beginning)  system 
of  rocks  is  the  most  distinct  of  all  the  others, 
there  being  absolutely  everywhere  an  un- 
conformity between  them  and  every  other 
s^^stem.  They  are  the  oldest  known  rocks. 
They  are,  howxver,  stratified  rocks  and  con- 
sequentty  the  hardened  sediments  of  other 
and  more  primitive  rocks  of  which  the 
geologist  absolutely  knows  nothing. 

These  Archaean  rocks  are  alwa^^s  strik- 
ingly metamorphic  and  highly  crumpled. 
These  rocks  are  very  extensive  and  contain 
the  greatest  beds  of  iron-ore  of  any  strata 
on  the  globe.  They  are  of  an  immense 
thickness  and  likel}^  are  equal  in  depth  to 
all  the  subsequent  strata  together. 

Some   geologists    think    that    they   have 


—  240- 

found  evidences  of  at  least  the  dawn  of  life 
in  the  time  of  the  Archseans.  They  claim 
that  the  vast  deposits  of  iron-ore  found  in 
these  rocks,  as  also  the  presence  of  graphite 
and  limestone,  give  some  indications  of  the 
previous  existence  of  life.  They  say  that 
the  existence  of  the  lowest  forms  of  vege- 
table life  in  these  strata  is  almost  certain, 
and  of  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life  (Pro- 
toza)  probable.  However,  the  best  geological 
authority  maintains  that  no  life  flourished 
in  the  time  of  these  rocks,  and  applies  the 
name  Azoic  (no  animal  life)  or  simply  Arch- 
sean,  to  designate  the  strata. 

Between  the  Archaean  and  Silurian  rocks, 
also  called  the  Palaeozoic  (old  life),  the  great- 
est and  most  universal  break  of  the  whole 
series  of  the  globe's  stratifications  occurs. 
These  two  series  of  rocks  are  nowhere 
continuous ;  they  are  everywhere  completely 
unconformable. 

The  period  between  the  Archaean  and 
Palaeozoic  rocks  is  regarded  by  geologists  as 
a  lost  interval  of  time.  In  Archaean  times 
there  were  certainly  no  fauna  or  flora.  The 
Palaeozoic  is  regarded  as  the  most  distinct 
era  in  the  earth's  histor}^  in  regard  to  life 
on  its  surface.  With  the  Palaeozoic  era 
begins  a  distinct  and  well  defined  fauna  and 
flora. 

The  Palaeozoic  rocks  are  much  less  thick, 


crumpled  and  metamorpliic  than  the  Arch- 
aean. 

The  Palaeozoic  rocks  are  divided  into  the 
Silurian,  the  age  of  Mollusks ;  the  Devonian, 
the  age  of  Fishes;  and  the  Carboniferous, 
the  age  of  Acrogen  plants. 

The  Silurian  rocks  derive  their  name 
from  Silures,  the  Roman  name  for  the 
ancient  Welsh  of  these  rocks,  as  they  were 
first  studied  in  Wales.  The  Silurians  com- 
pose the  Primordial,  Canada,  Trenton,  Ni- 
agara, Salina,  Helderberg  and  Oriskany. 

The  onl}^  plants  found  in  these  rocks  are 
sea-weeds.  The  animals  are  the  lowest  in 
the  scale  of  life.  For  instance,  of  the  Echin- 
oderms,  only  the  most  imperfect  forms  are 
found,  the  Crinoids.  Of  the  Mollusks  we 
find  the  Brachiopoda.  Of  the  Articulata  we 
find  Trilobites,  the  lowest  forms  of  the 
Crustaceans.  These  Trilobites  show  an  ex- 
traordinary want  of  development  and  com- 
pleteness. 

In  the  Palaeozoic  era  reigned  Fishes  and 
Acrogen  Plants.  Fishes  existed  in  great 
abundance.  In  the  earl}^  portion  of  the 
Palaeozoic  era,  the  sea  is  supposed  to  have 
covered  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe. 
The  fishes  of  this  era,  however,  were  not  at 
all  like  the  common  fishes  of  the  present 
time. 

There  were  no  high  mountains  nor  deep 

16 


—  242  — 

depressions,  and  consequently  no  mighty 
barriers  to  the  mingling  of  the  fishes  of  the 
universal  ocean.  The  animals  of  that  early 
era  without  exception  were  all  aquatic,  and 
they  were  singularly  alike  all  the  world 
over.  These  Palaeozoic  fishes  reached  their 
greatest  development  in  the  Devonian  sys- 
tem of  rocks. 

The  Carboniferous  age  is  noted  for  the 
extraordinary  abundance  and  luxuriance  of 
its  vegetables  and  plants.  It  is  the  age  of 
the  Acrogens. 

This  age  is  subdivided  into  the  Sub- 
Carboniferous  ;  Carboniferous  ;  and  Permian 
periods.  The  Carboniferous  age  is  itself 
but  one  of  the  three  ages  of  the  Paleozoic 
era.  The  Palseozoic  is  but  one  of  the  five 
great  eras  including  the  present.  The  great 
eras  are  the  Eozoic  (dawn  of  animal  life)-; 
Palseozoic  (old  life)  ;  Mesozoic  (middle  life) ; 
Cenozoic  (recent  life) ;  and  Psychozoic  (ra- 
tional life). 

The  Carboniferous  period  is  not  more 
than  one-twentieth  to  one-thirtieth  of  the 
earth's  geological  history,  and  yet  during 
its  continuance  were  preserved  nine-tenths 
of  all  the  coal  of  the  globe.  Coal  is  the 
fossil  remains  of  decayed  plants  and  vege- 
tables. The  earth  must  have  absolutely 
teemed  with  plants   and  vegetables  during 


—  243  — 

this  period,  and  it  is  well  designated  as  the 
reign  of  acrogen  plants. 

In  early  geological  times  and  particularly 
during  the  Carboniferous  age,  more  moisture 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  less  oxygen  ex- 
isted in  the  atmosphere  than  at  present. 
While  this  condition  of  things  would  make 
a  paradise  for  plants  and  vegetables,  espe- 
cially of  the  lower  orders,  it  would  be  entirely 
unsuitable  for  air-breathing  animals.  The 
air  was  greatly  purified  during  the  Carbon- 
iferous age  by  the  withdrawal  of  Carbonic 
acid  gas,  by  the  immense  growth  of  vege- 
tables, for  plants  absorb  or  breathe  this  gas, 
and  much  of  the  superabundant  moisture 
was  absorbed  by  the  rising  of  the  continents 
out  of  the  sea.  Thus  moisture  and  carbonic 
acid  gas  were  removed  and  pure  oxygen 
restored  to  the  atmosphere,  which  was  thus 
gradually  prepared  to  support  the  life  of 
air-breathing  animals. 

The  Mesozoic  era  follows  the  Palaeozoic, 
but  unlike  the  latter,  that  consisted  of  three 
ages,  the  former  embraces  only  one,  the 
Age  of  Reptiles.  Never  in  all  geological 
ages  vv^ere  reptiles  so  abundant,  of  such  vast 
proportions  and  such  fine  organism  as  dur- 
ing this  era.  Among  animals,  reptiles  were 
so  markedly  predominant  that  the  Mesozoic 
era  is  designated  the  Age  of  Reptiles. 

This  era  is  divided  into   two  periods  or 


—  244  — 

rock  systems,  tlie  Jura-Trias  and  the  Creta- 
ceous (chalk).  During  this  era  reptiles 
were  rulers  on  the  land,  in  the  air  and  in 
the  sea. 

The  Ichthyosaurus  was  a  sea-serpent,  40 
feet  long,  eyes  fifteen  inches  across  and  jaws 
set  with  hundreds  of  conical  teeth.  In  this 
era  flourished  the  Dinosaurs,  colossal  land 
reptiles,  and  the  largest  animals  that  ever 
walked  the  globe.  The  mighty  Iguanodon 
and  Megalosaurus  were  Dinosaurs. 
.  The  marvelous  Pterosaurs  were  winged 
reptiles. 

Next  follows  the  Cenozoic  (recent  life) 
era  and  the  age  of  Mammals.  In  this  era 
throughout  the  earth  Mammals  are  the 
dominant  class  of  animals.  The  Mammal- 
ian age  and  Cenozoic  era  are  divided  into 
the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  periods.  The 
suddenness  of  the  appearance  of  mammals 
in  this  era  is  very  remarkable.  True  mam- 
mals of  the  highest  order  appear  in  vast 
numbers  and  great  diversity  in  this  era, 
without  warning  and  without  progenitors. 
Nowhere  else  in  the  history  of  the  earth's 
fauna  is  the  work  of  a  special  creation  and 
a  special  providence  more  apparent. 

During  Quaternary  times,  mammals  at- 
tained their  greatest  development.  This 
was  the  period  of  the  Mammoth  and  the 
Mastodon,  either  more  than  twice  the  size 


—  245  — 

of  the  largest  living  elephant.  It  was,  too, 
the  period  of  the  South  American  Megather- 
ium and  Mylodon,  and  the  Australian  Dip- 
rotodon. 

The  Quaternary  period  has  been  divided 
into  the  Glacial,  Champlain  and  Terrace 
epochs.  The  terrible  cold  of  the  Glacial 
epoch  is  supposed  to  have  been  occasioned 
by  the  elevation  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
and  to  slow  changes  in  the  form  and  posi- 
tion of  the  earth's  orbit  (Croll). 

Geology  teaches  that  the  earth  was  spe- 
cially prepared  for  the  Ps3'chozoic  era  and 
Age  of  Man  by  the  extinction  of  the  great 
ruling  mammals  of  the  Cenozoic  era  and  a 
diminution  of  noxious  animals  and  plants. 
The  mammoth,  mastodon,  cave-bear  and 
saber-toothed  tiger  disappeared  before  the 
advent  of  man. 

Geology  clearly  points  out  that  the  suc- 
cession of  created  beings  on  the  earth's 
surface  is  the  realization  of  an  infinitely 
wise  plan.  Consequently  there  must  be  a 
necessary  relation  between  the  races  of  ani- 
mals and  the  epochs  at  which  they  appear. 

There  has  been  a  manifest  progress  in 
the  succession  of  beings  upon  the  globe. 
This  progress  consists  in  an  increasing 
similarity  to  living  animals  and  particularly 
in  their  increasing  resemblance  to  Man. 
But  this  connection  is  not  in  consequence 


—  246  — 

of  a  direct  lineage  between  the  faunas  of 
different  ages.  There  is  nothing  like  par- 
ental descent  connecting  them.  The  Fishes 
of  the  Palaeozoic  era  are  in  no  respect  the 
ancestors  of  the  Reptiles  of  the  Mesozoic 
era,  nor  does  Man  descend  from  the  Mam- 
mals which  preceded  him  in  the  Cenozoic 
era.  The  link  by  which  they  are  connected 
is  of  a  higher  and  immaterial  nature  ;  and 
their  connection  is  to  be  sought  in  the  view 
of  the  Creator  himself,  whose  aim,  in  form- 
ing the  earth,  in  allowing  it  to  undergo 
the  successive  changes  which  Geology  has 
pointed  out,  and  in  creating  successively  all 
the  different  types  of  animals  which  have 
passed  away,  was  to  introduce  Man  upon 
the  surface  of  our  globe. 

Man  is  the  end  toward  which  all  the 
animal  creation  has  tended,  from  the  first 
appearance  of  the  first  Palaeozoic  Fishes. 
In  the  beginning  His  plan  was  formed,  and 
from  it  He  has  never  swerved  in  any  partic- 
ular. The  same  Being  who,  in  view  of 
man's  moral  wants,  provided  and  declared, 
thousands  of  years  in  advance,  that  ''  the 
seed  of  the  woman  shall  bruise  the  serpent's 
head,"  laid  up  also  for  him  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth  those  vast  stores  of  granite,  mar- 
ble, coal,  salt,  and  the  various  metals,  the 
product  of  its  several  revolutions ;  and  thus 
was   an    inexhaustible    provision    made  for 


—  247  — 

His  necessities,  and  for  the  development  of 
his  genius,  ages  in  anticipation  of  his  ap- 
pearance. 

When  we  consider  the  creations  of  the 
geological  eras,  the  Palaeozoic,  Mesozoic  and 
Cenozoic,  and  compare  them  with  those  of 
the  Da^^s  of  Moses,  we  will  find  the  Mosaic 
and  geological  records  to  have  a  wonderful 
coincidence. 

The  Palaeozoic  era  rejoiced  particularly 
in  the  extraordinary  luxuriance  of  its  vege- 
tation, and  this  corresponds  to  the  Third 
Day  of  Genesis  when  God  said:  ''Let  the 
earth  bring  forth  the  green  herb,  and  such 
as  may  seed,  and  the  fruit  tree  yielding  fruit 
after  its  kind,  which  may  have  seed  in  itself 
upon  the  earth.  And  it  was  so  done.  And 
the  earth  brought  forth  the  green  herb,  and 
such  as  yieldeth  seed  according  to  its  kind, 
and  the  tree  that  beareth  fruit,  having  seed 
each  one  according  to  its  kind." 

The  animals  of  the  IMesozoic  era  and  age 
of  Reptiles  correspond  to  the  creations  of 
the  Fifth  Day  of  Aloses  :  ''  God  also  said  :  Let 
the  waters  bring  forth  the  creeping  creatures 
having  life,  and  the  fowl  that  may  fly  over 
the  earth  under  the  firmament  of  Heaven. 
And  God  created  the  great  whales,  and 
every  living  and  moving  creature  which  the 
waters   brought    forth,    according    to   their 


—  248  — 

kinds,  and  every  winged  fowl  according  to 
its  kind." 

In  the  Mesozoic  era  and  tke  Fifth  Day 
reigned  on  the  earth  huge  creeping  things, 
lizards  and  crocodiles  ;  and  the  deep  swarmed 
with  its  wonderful  whales,  not  of  the  mam- 
malian but  reptilian  class.  This  era  was 
a  time  of  whale-like  reptiles  of  the  sea, 
monster  creeping  reptiles  of  the  land,  and 
reptilian  birds  of  gigantic  stature. 

The  Cenozoic  era  and  the  Sixth  Mosaic 
Day  had  its  grand  mammalian  creatures. 
*'  God  said :  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  the 
living  creature  in  its  kind,  cattle  and  creep- 
ing things,  and  beasts  of  the  earth,  according 
to  their  kinds.  And  it  was  done.  And  God 
made  the  beasts  of  the  earth  according  to 
their  kinds,  and  cattle  and  everything  that 
creepeth  on  the  earth  after  its  kind." 

Towards  the  end  of  the  Sixth  Day  which 
corresponds  to  the  Psychozoic  era,  God  cre- 
ated man  himself.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  the  chronology  of  the  geologists  is  a 
very  imperfect  one  indeed,  ver}^  loose  and 
broken.  But  its  links,  wherever  they  can  be 
traced,  marvelously  agree  with  the  Mosaic 
record. 

Three  of  the  Mosaic  Days  belong  to 
Astronomy  and  three  to  Geology.  The  geo- 
logical records  that  have  hitherto  been 
brought  to  light,  represent  but  the  merest 


—  249  — 

fragment  of  the  earth's  past  history.  Each 
new  year  is  adding  to  the  store  of  facts 
already  gathered.  So  that  a  geological 
hypothesis  may  be  entirely  consistent  with 
the  knowledge  we  possess  to-day,  and  yet 
may  be  found  altogether  inconsistent  with 
the  knowledge  we  shall  possess  in  a  few 
years. 

An  objection  is  raised  against  the  har- 
mony of  the  Mosaic  Da^^s  and  the  records  of 
Geology,  particularly  concerning  the  history 
of  early  organic  life  on  our  glo])e.  The 
Third  Da^-  of  Moses  corresponds  with  the 
Carboniferous  period  and  yet  there  is  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  both  plant  and  ani- 
mal life  long  anterior  to  this,  indeed  as  far 
back  as  the  Laurentian  Rocks  themselves. 

Again,  Moses  represents  the  Fishes  as 
having  been  created  on  the  Fifth  Day,  cor- 
responding to  the  Mesozoic  era.  On  the 
other  hand  the  geological  record  assigns  to 
the  Devonian  period,  away  back  in  the  Palae- 
ozoic era,  the  reign  of  Fishes. 

But  there  is  in  reality  no  contradiction 
between  the  records.  ''The  Sacred  Writer 
tells  us,  no  doubt,  that  on  the  Third  Day 
God  created  plants  and  trees  :  but  he  does 
not  say,  either  expressly  or  otherwise,  that 
previous  to  the  Third  Day  the  Earth  was 
devoid  of  vegetation.  Again,  we  read  that 
reptiles,  fish,  and  birds  were  created  on  the 


—  250  — 

Fiftli  Day.  But  there  is  nothing  in  the 
language  of  the  Inspired  narrative  from 
which  it  can  be  inferred  that  these  several 
classes  of  animal  life  may  not  have  been 
represented  before  that  time,  by  many  and 
various  species :  though  probably,  it  was 
only  on  the  Fifth  Day  that  they  were  de- 
veloped in  such  vast  numbers,  and  assumed 
such  gigantic  proportions,  as  to  become  the 
most  conspicuous  objects  of  creation. 

The  first  chapter  of  Genesis  is  but  a  brief 
summary  of  an  inconceivably  vast  series  of 
events.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  rapid 
sketch,  exhibiting,  as  it  were,  to  the  e3'e  the 
prominent  features  in  the  history  of  Crea- 
tion. Moreover,  we  should  remember  that 
it  was  written  with  a  specific  end  in  view. 
The  purpose  of  the  Sacred  Writer  was 
plainly  to  impress  upon  the  Hebrew  people, 
naturally  prone  to  idolatr}^,  the  existence  of 
One  Supreme  Being,  who  has  made  all 
things.  Hence  we  should  naturally  expect 
that,  amid  the  boundless  variety  of  God's 
works,  he  would  make  choice  of  those  that 
were  most  calculated  to  strike  the  mind  wath 
wonder  and  awe,  and  to  bring  home  to  a 
rude  and  uncultivated  race  of  men  the  Al- 
mighty Power  and  Supreme  Dominion  of  the 
Great  Creator.  Now  the  Zoophytes,  and 
Graptolites  and  Trilobites,  of  the  Devonian 
and  Silurian  periods,  however  curious  and 


—  251  — 

interesting  tliey  may  be  to  men  of  science, 
would  have  had  but  little  significance  for 
the  Jewish  people.  Let  us  suppose  that 
these  more  humble  forms  of  animal  life  had, 
in  fact,  existed  during  the  First  and  Second 
Days  of  the  Mosaic  narrative,  and  w^here  is 
the  wonder  that  the  Inspired  Historian, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
should  pass  them  by  in  silence,  and  choose 
rather  to  commemorate  the  more  striking 
and  impressive  facts,  that,  at  the  bidding  of 
God,  light  shone  forth  from  the  midst  of 
darkness,  and  the  blue  firmament  of  Heaven 
was  expanded  above  the  waste  of  waters? 

We  say,  then,  that  events  which  are 
simpty  left  unrecorded  by  the  Sacred  Writer 
are  not,  on  that  account,  untrue,  (St.  Au- 
gustine, Confes.  Lib.  xii.,  cap.  xxii) :  that 
he  describes  to  us,  not  all  the  works  of  Cre- 
ation, which  would  have  been  an  endless 
task,  but  only  the  more  conspicuous  objects 
in  each  successive  stage ;  and  that  he  sketches 
them,  most  probably,  as  the}^  would  have 
appeared  to  the  eye  of  a  human  observer,  if 
a  human  observer  at  the  time  had  existed 
on  the  Earth.  If  this  view  be  admitted, 
then  it  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  Script- 
ure narrative  to  suppose  that  plants  may 
have  existed  before  the  Third  Day,  and  fish 
before  the  Fifth. 

''Each   Day  in  its  turn  would  have  been 


—  252  — 

rendered  conspicuous  to  an  observing  spec- 
tator by  those  events  which  are  recorded  by 
Moses.  But  each  Day,  too,  would  have  wit- 
nessed many  other  events,  unnoticed  by 
Moses,  of  which  the  memorials  have  been 
preserved,  even  to  our  time,  in  the  Crust  of 
the  Earth."     (Molloy,  page  352). 

Now  it  may  well  be  asked  where  could 
Moses  have  obtained  his  marvelous  knowl- 
edge regarding  the  order  of  creation?  Not 
certainly  from  natural  sources,  no  fossils 
had  been  then  classified,  no  rock  systems 
arranged,  geology  was  not  known.  Must  it 
not  be  confessed  that  his  knowledge  was 
the  work  solely  of  Divine  inspiration? 


Chapter  XV. 

RESULTS  OF  BIOLOGY. 
{Principles.) 

Among  the  bitterest  and  most  persistent 
adversaries  of  the  Mosaic  record  are  a  cer- 
tain class  of  agnostic  biologists.  They 
maintain  that  living  beings  have  sprung 
from  dead  matter  through  spontaneous  gen- 
eration, and  from  the  ver^^  lowest  monera 
came  man  after  a  long  series  of  transmuta- 
tions. For  it  is  the  final  purpose  and  object 
of  Darwinism  or  Specific  Evolution  to  dem- 


—  253  — 

onstrate  the  transmutation  of  brute  animals 
into  man  by  showing  that  one  species  can 
change  into  another. 

It  is  thus  of  paramount  importance  to  set 
forth  the  vital  principles  of  Biology,  weigh 
the  grounds  for  spontaneous  generation  and 
consider  the  doctrine  of  the  descent  of  spe- 
cies. Biology  (Gr.  /^/^c,  life,  and  /^r^c,  dis- 
course) is  the  science  that  treats  of  living 
beings  and  life  in  general. 

Life  is  a  most  difficult  thing  to  define 
within  proper  limits,  and  indeed,  its  perfect 
definition  seems  to  be  an  impossibility. 
One  of  its  best  definitions  is  that  of  G.  H. 
Lewes:  ''Life  is  a  series  of  definite  and 
successive  changes,  both  of  structure  and 
composition,  which  take  place  within  an  in- 
dividual v/ithout  destroying  its  identity." 

The  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  em- 
brace all  living  beings  on  our  planet  and 
hence  Biology  includes  the  sciences  of  Zo- 
olog}'  and  Botany. 

All  objects  in  nature  are  either  living  or 
dead.  The  following  leading  characteristics 
may  be  said  to  distinguish  living  from  dead 
bodies:  i.  Every  living  body  has  the  power 
of  assimilation  or  growth  by  which  it  takes 
into  its  interior  certain  materials  foreign  to 
those  composing  its  own  substance,  and  of 
converting  these  into  the  materials  of  which 
its  body  is  built  up. 


—  254  — 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  dead  bodies, 
such  for  instance  as  crystals,  increase  in  size, 
the  process  is  not  growth  but  ''accretion" 
of  new  matter.  This  accretion  is  the  addi- 
tion of  fresh  particles  from  the  exterior  and 
there  is  no  assimilation. 

2.  The  actions  of  living  beings  are  ac- 
companied by  a  corresponding  destruction 
of  the  matter  by  which  these  actions  are 
manifested  and  the  loss  of  matter  is  com- 
pensated for  by  the  simultaneous  assimila- 
tion of  an  equivalent  amount  of  fresh  matter. 

3.  Every  living  body,  however  humble  it 
may  be,  and  even  if  permanently  rooted  to 
one  place,  possesses,  in  some  part  or  other, 
or  at  some  period  of  its  existence,  a  powxr 
of  independent  and  spontaneous  movement, 
a  power  possessed  by  nothing  that  is  dead. 

Living  matter,  so  long  as  it  is  living,  is 
the  seat  of  energy  and  can  overcome  the 
primary  law  of  the  inertia  of  matter.  Dead 
matter  is  entirely  passive,  unable  to  originate 
motion,  and  equally  unable  to  arrest  it  when 
once  originated. 

Living  differs  from  dead  matter  in  its 
tendency  to  undergo  cyclical  changes. 

In  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  all 
living  matter  proceeds  from  preexisting 
living  matter,  a  portion  of  the  latter  being 
detached  and  acquiring  an  independent  ex- 
istence.    The  new  form  takes  on  the  char- 


—  255  - 

acters  of  that  from  which  it  arose ;  exhibits 
the  same  power  of  propagating  itself  by 
means  of  an  offshoot ;  and,  sooner  or  later, 
like  its  predecessor,  ceases  to  live,  and  is  re- 
solved into  more  highly  oxidated  compounds 
of  its  elements.  As  Professor  Huxley  re- 
marks, the  present  state  of  knowledge  fur- 
nishes us  with  no  link  between  the  living 
and  the  not-living. 

5.  Living  and  dead  bodies  radically  differ 
in  chemical  composition.  The  combining 
elements  in  dead  bodies  unite  with  one 
another  in  low  combining  proportions,  and 
the  resulting  compounds  for  the  most  part 
consist  of  no  more  than  two  or  three  ele- 
ments. The  combinations  of  these  elements 
may  be  said  to  be  naturally  in  a  state  of 
stable  equilibrium,  and  they  show  no  tend- 
ency to  spontaneous  decomposition. 

Living  bodies  are  composed  of  few  chemi- 
cal elements  and  the  combinations  are  alwavs 
complex,  consisting  of  three  or  four  elements 
and  these  elements  are  united  with  one  an- 
other in  high  combining  proportions. 

A  large  proportion  of  water  is  present  in 
the  chemical  compounds  of  living  bodies 
and  these  are  prone  to  spontaneous  decom- 
position. 

Protein,  the  invariable  basis  of  living 
bodies,  is  composed  of  54  atoms  of  Carbon, 
7  of  Hydrogen,  14  of  Nitrogen,  24  of  Oxy- 


—  256- 

gen  and  2  of  Sulpliur.  This  protein,  united 
with  a  large  proportion  of  water,  forms  the 
chief  constituent  of  protoplasm. 

6.  Again  most  living  bodies  are  composed 
of  organs  or  separate  parts  which  have 
certain  definite  functions  in  the  general 
economy,  and  are  said  to  be  organized.  Or- 
ganization is  not,  however,  an  absolute 
necessity  of  vitality,  as  some  living  bodies 
are  found  that  cannot  be  properly  said  to  be 
organized. 

7.  Dead  bodies  have  either  no  definite 
shape,  and  are  then  said  to  be  amorphous,  or 
are  crystalline,  and  so  bounded  b}^  lines  and 
planes.  Living  bodies  are  bounded  for  the 
most  part  by  curves  and  are  of  a  definite 
shape.  The  shapes  of  living  bodies  can 
never  be  confounded  with  the  amorphous 
and  crystalline  forms  of  dead  matter,  al- 
though sometimes  they  are  found  without  a 
fixed  form. 

The  conditions  under  which  life  can  alone 
be  manifested  are  of  two  kinds :  The  in- 
trinsic or  indispensable  conditions,  without 
which  life  is  impossible;  and  the  extrinsic 
conditions  which  are  mostly  present  but  not 
absolutely  essential  to  the  existence  of  living 
beings. 

The  first  condition  demands  the  presence 
of  a  physical  basis  and  the  second  condition 


—  257  - 

the  presence  of  organisation,  light  and  air, 
and  a  certain  temperature. 

The  phenomena  of  life  are  associated 
necessarily  with  a  particular  form  of  matter 
termed  the  physical  basis.  The  physical 
basis  of  life  is  named  protoplasm,  or  better 
still,  bioplasm.  Naturalists  are  agreed  gen- 
erally that  the  presence  of  protein  or  proto- 
plasm is  an  essential  condition  of  vitality. 
It  seems  certain  that  no  body  unless  com- 
posed of  some  form  of  this  protoplasmic 
matter  is  capable  of  manifesting  the  phe- 
nomena of  life. 

There  are,  however,  two  different  senses 
in  which  this  statement  is  received.  Some 
maintain  that  life  is  one  of  the  properties  of 
protoplasm,  that  protoplasm  is  not  only  a 
condition  of  vitalit}^,  but  its  very  cause. 
Others  and  the  more  philosophic  claim  that 
protoplasm  is  merely  a  condition  of  vitality 
in  the  same  sense  that  a  metal  rod  or  con- 
ductor is  an  essential  condition  of  electricity. 
In  discussing  the  question  as  to  whether 
protein  is  a  condition  or  cause  of  life,  we 
must  remember  that  we  know  only  two  fac- 
tors of  the  case :  That  certain  phenomena 
called  vital,  are  exclusively  manifested  by 
living  beings  ;  and  that  these  phenomena 
are  never  manifested  except  by  a  single  form 
of  matter,  protoplasm,  albumen  or  protein. 
Therefore,  we  conclude  that  there  must  be 

17 


—  258  — 

an  intimate  connection  between  vital  phe- 
nomena and  protoplasm  or  matter  of  life, 
bnt  there  is  no  warrant  for  the  assertion 
that  life  is  the  result  of  protoplasm  or  one 
of  its  properties. 

The  more  philosophical  view  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  connection  betw^een  life  and 
its  material  basis,  is  the  one  which  regards 
vitality  as  something  superadded  and  foreign 
to  the  matter  by  which  vital  phenomena  are 
manifested.  A  good  conductor  is  necessary 
for  the  manifestation  of  electricity,  but 
electricity  can  exist  in  a  world  entirely 
devoid  of  good  conductors. 

Among  the  extrinsic  conditions,  not  actu- 
ally essential  to  living  beings,  but  generally 
present,  is  organization.  Most  animals  con- 
sist of  definite  parts  or  organs,  with  fixed 
relations  to  one  another,  and  each  discharg- 
ing its  own  work  or  function  in  the  general 
economy. 

Many  eminent  naturalists  have  claimed 
that  life  is  so  inseparably  connected  with 
organization  that  it  must  be  regarded  abso- 
lutely as  the  result  of  organization. 

An  examination,  however,  of  the  tiny 
creatures,  Foraminifera,  proves  the  contrary. 
These  minute  animals  have  no  real  organs, 
or  organization.  They  consist  of  structure- 
less and  formless  albuminous  matter.  They, 
however,  exhibit  all  the  phenomena  of  life. 


—  259  — 

They  assimilate  nourishment,  grow,  main- 
tain their  existence  against  hostile  forces, 
have  certain  relations  with  the  outer  world, 
and  reproduce  their  like.  They  manifest 
the  highest  functions  of  life  without  a  single 
organ  of  any  kind.  Thus  they  show  that 
organization  is  but  a  result  of  life,  and  not 
even  a  necessary  result.  Hence  we  see  that 
an  animal  does  not  live  because  it  is  organ- 
ized ;  it  is  organized  or  possesses  structure 
because  it  is  alive. 

Light. — In  one  sense  light  is  absolutely 
essential  to  life.  All  animals  are  dependent, 
mediately  or  immediate^,  upon  plants  for 
their  food,  for  plants  alone  possess  the  power 
of  building  up  organic  compounds  out  of 
inorganic  materials.  Plants,  however,  or- 
dinarily, can  accomplish  this  feat  of  vital 
chemistry  only  when  supplied  with  the 
chemical  ra3'S  of  the  sun,  so  that  light  is 
absolutely  required  for  life. 

Again,  some  animals  pass  their  entire  life 
in  total  darkness,  so  that  while  light  is 
necessary  for  animated  nature  as  a  whole, 
it  is  not  essential  to  all  living  beings  re- 
garded as  individuals. 

Air. —  Although  certain  low  vegetable 
organisms,  such  as  the  bacteria,  flourish  in 
an  atmosphere  of  Carbonic  acid  gas ;  still 
the  presence  of  atmospheric  air  seems  to  be 
essential  to  animal  life ;  and  the  presence  of 


-260  — 

free  oxygen  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
extrinsic  conditions  of  vitality. 

Temperature. — The  higher  manifesta- 
tions of  life  are  generally  considered  possible 
only  within  a  very  limited  range  of  temper- 
ature, or  within  ioo°  Fahrenheit,  or  from  32° 
to  about  130°.  Very  low  organisms,  how- 
ever, have  been  known  to  live  within  a  much 
greater  range,  or  from  20°  to  300°  Fahr. 

Water. — The  physical  basis  of  life  or 
protoplasm  demands  the  presence  of  a  large 
proportion  of  water.  Life,  however,  has 
been  found  in  protoplasm,  in  a  dormant  con- 
dition, even  in  the  total  absence  of  water. 

All  the  above  named  conditions  are  more 
or  less  essential  for  the  existence  of  life,  so 
much  so,  that  the  absence  of  any  one  of  them 
ordinarily  causes  death.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  extraordinary  exceptions  to  this. 
The  Rotifers,  microscopic  creatures,  but 
very  highly  organized,  may  be  dried  and 
reduced  to  dust,  and  kept  in  this  state  for 
an  indefinite  period  of  years.  The  addition 
of  water  will,  after  the  lapse  of  all  these 
years,  restore  their  activity  and  vigor.  These 
Rotifers,  however,  are  merely  in  a  state  of 
suspended  animation  and  are  not  really 
dead.  TJiis  is  an  instance  of  revival  but 
not  a  revitalization. 

The  microscope  has  demonstrated  that 
the  tissues  of  plants  and  animals  are  com- 


—  261  — 

posed  of  an  aggregation  of  niinnte  elemental 
structures  called  cells.  The  morphological 
unit  of  the  whole  living  world  is  the  cell^ 
which  in  its  simplest  condition  is  merely  a 
spheroidal  mass  of  protoplasm  surrounded 
by  a  coat  or  sac  called  the  cell- wall,  which 
in  vcQfetables  contains  cellulose,  and  in  ani- 
mals  albuminous  matter. 

The  cell  is  then  the  primary  and  funda- 
mental form  of  life.  The  simplest  or  most 
degraded  form  of  life  3^et  discovered  is  seen 
in  a  Moner,  called  Bathybius,  found  by 
Professor  Wyville  Thompson,  at  a  depth  of 
2,435  fathoms,  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

The  beings  called  Aloners  (Monera  of 
Haeckel)  are  so  simple  in  their  structure,  or 
rather,  they  are  so  entirely  destitute  of  struc- 
ture, that  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  are 
plants  or  animals.  They  are  merely  struc- 
tureless living  albuminous  jelly.  In  the 
Moner,  then,  the  organism  consists  wholly 
of  what  Professor  Huxley  and  other  writers 
call  protoplasm,  and  Dr.  Beale  designates  bi- 
oplasm, which  is  entirely  structureless,  since 
it  exhibits  nothing  in  the  way  of  definite 
organs,  and  has,  at  most,  a  number  of  small 
particles  or  molecules  scattered  through  it. 
Still,  the  little  animal  performs  all  the  func- 
tions of  nutrition  and  reproduction  and 
manifests  all  the  essential  phenomena  of 
life.     (Bioplasm  is  colorless,  transparent  and 


—  262  — 

^apparently  structureless.  It  is  strongly 
tinged  by  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  carmine. 
It  has  the  power  of  spontaneous  movement 
or  of  extending  itself  in  all  directions  in  the 
form  of  mutable  processes  which  can  be 
withdrawn  at  will.  Bioplasm  has  the  extra- 
ordinary power  of  flowing  through  closed 
membranes  without  losing  its  identity  or 
form.) 

In  some  plants,  termed  unicellular,  a  single 
cell  constitutes  the  entire  organism,  and  in 
this  solitary  cell  resides  the  power  of  both 
nutrition  and  reproduction.  In  the  majorit}^ 
of  cases,  however,  the  organism  of  animal  or 
plant  is  composed  of  a  congeries  of  cells, 
each  of  which  enjo^^s  to  a  certain  extent  a 
life  of  its  own,  whilst  its  existence  is,  never- 
theless, bound  up  with  that  of  the  whole. 

The  outer  layer  or  membrane  by  which 
the  cell  is  bounded  is  the  cell-wall.  It  is 
not  absolutely  essential  to  the  cell's  exist- 
ence, nor  the  agent  by  which  cellular  activity 
is  manifested.  The  cell-wall  appears  to  be 
formed  from  the  outermost  portion  of  the 
cell-contents  by  a  process  of  transformation 
or  partial  death.  The  vital  activity  of  the 
cell  seems  to  be  more  or  less  governed  by 
the  nature  of  the  cell-wall ;  the  thicker  and 
more  developed  becomes  the  cell-wall,  the 
less  efficient  grows  the  cell. 

The  cell-contents,  the  all  important  ele- 


—  263  — 

meiit  of  the  cell,  are  essentially  of  the  nature 
of  protoplasmic  or  bioplasmic  matter.  This 
is  especially  the  case  in  yoimg,  actively 
growing  cells,  where  the  cell-wall  bears  but 
a  small  proportion  to  the  cell-contents. 

The  cell-contents,  however,  diminish  in 
bulk  in  progress  of  growth,  owing  to  the 
transformation  of  their  outermost  layers  into 
formed  material  or  cell-walls.  The  cell- 
contents  contain  more  or  less  numerous 
molecules  and  granules ;  they  appear  to  be 
the  main,  and  in  some  cases,  the  sole  agent 
whereby  the  vital  actions  of  the  cells  are 
carried  on,  and  they  constitute  the  only  cell 
element  the  existence  of  which  is  constant. 

The  cell-contents  contain  generally,  though 
not  universally,  a  central  dot  or  vesicle  called 
the  nucleus.  The  nucleus  is  oval  or  rounded ; 
sometimes  solid,  sometimes  vesicular  and 
sometimes  composed  of  granules.  The  nu- 
cleus pla^^s  an  important  part  in  cell-life,  it 
is  colored  extensively  with  carmine  and 
often  takes  the  initiative  in  the  process  of 
cell-multiplication.  The  nucleus  is  not  ab- 
solutely essential  to  cells,  as  it  is  not  in- 
variably present  in  them.  The  nucleus 
frequentl}^  contains  in  its  interior  a  still 
smaller  solid  dot  or  particle  called  the  nu- 
cleolus. 

Cells  have  the  power  of  perpetuating 
themselves,  b\^  producing  fresh  cells  by  the 


—  264  — 

process  of  cytogenesis  or  cell-multiplication. 
Fresh  cells  are  often  produced  within  a 
parent-cell  by  the  separation  of  the  cell- 
contents  into  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
distinct  masses.  The  nucleus  divides  into 
two  parts,  and  round  each  half  the  cell- 
contents  aggregate  so  as  to  form  two  cells. 
These  fresh  nuclei  divide  again,  giving  rise 
to  four  cells  and  again  to  eight,  and  so  on. 
This  is  the  process  of  Endogenous  cell- 
multiplication. 

Gemmiparous  cell-multiplication  takes 
place  Avhen  new  cells  are  formed  by  little 
buds  which  are  thrown  out  by  a  parent  cell. 
It  is  termed  Fissiparous  cell-multiplication 
when  the  parent  cell  divides  by  cleavage 
into  two  or  four  parts,  each  of  which  becomes 
an  independent  cell. 

Every  animal,  as  well  as  every  plant,  no 
matter  how  highly  organized,  commences 
its  existence  as  a  simple  cell,  and  the  most 
recent  biological  researches  teach,  according 
to  Huxley,  that  no  cell  has  arisen  otherwise 
than  by  becoming  separated  from  the  pro- 
toplasm of  a  pre-existing  cell ;  whence  the 
aphorism  ^'Omnis  cellula  e  cellula."  No 
living  cell  can  come  from  dead  matter. 


—  265  — 

Chapter  XVI. 

RESULTS  OF  BIOLOGY. 
{Sponta7ico2is  Generation?) 

Spontaneous  Generation,  or  Abiogenesis, 
is  the  doctrine  that  animals  might  under 
certain  favorable  conditions  be  produced 
without  parents,  or  living  beings  could  be 
directly  produced  from  inanimate  material 
or  dead  matter. 

Materialistic  naturalists  have  clung  to 
this  doctrine  with  a  sort  of  desperation,  for 
they  have  largely  depended  upon  the  estab- 
lishment of  abiogenesis  and  transformation 
of  species  to  overthrow  the  Mosaic  records 
and  drive  the  Creator  out  of  the  universe. 

Anaximander  (6io  B.  C),  of  the  Ionian 
school  of  Grecian  philosophers,  and  Later 
Aristotle  of  the  Peripatetics,  expressed  their 
belief  in  spontaneous  generation,  as  indeed 
did  all  the  naturalists  of  antiquity  more  or 
less  implicitl3\ 

This  belief  of  the  ancients  was  due  to 
their  incomplete  knowledge  regarding  the 
real  origin  of  many  animal  species.  Thus, 
for  instance,  because  maggots  always  ap- 
peared in  putref3ang  meat  at  a  certain  stage 
of  its  decomposition,  the}^  were  thought  to  be 
formed  by  spontaneous  generation.  Their 
existence  could  be  accounted  for  in  no  other 


—  266  — 

way,  as  no  creatures  were  to  be  found  there 
previously. 

Francesco  Redi  (1668),  of  Arezzo,  was 
the  first  to  clearly  enunciate  the  doctrine 
that  living  organisms  must  have  originally 
sprung  from  preexisting  germs,  and  that  in 
all  cases  of  the  apparent  production  of  or- 
ganized beings  from  dead  matter,  as  in 
putrefaction  and  animal  and  vegetable  in- 
fusions, the  previous  existence  or  subsequent 
introduction  of  such  germs  must  be  pre- 
sumed. He  exposed  fresh  meat,  during 
warm  weather,  in  wide-mouthed  bottles, 
protected  by  pieces  of  paper  fastened  over 
their  necks.  In  the  bottles  thus  secured, 
no  maggots  were  developed,  notwithstanding 
that  the  putrefaction  of  the  meat  went  on  as 
usual ;  while  in  other  similar  vessels,  unpro- 
tected by  paper  covers,  maggots  swarmed  in 
abundance  at  the  customary  time. 

It  was  evident  therefore  that  their  origin 
was  due  to  something  introduced  from 
without,  and  it  soon  appeared  that  they 
were  really  the  progeny  of  flesh  flies,  which, 
attracted  by  the  odor  of  the  meat,  hovered 
over  it  until  they  gained  access  to  it,  and 
deposited  their  eggs  upon  its  surface.  The 
eggs  then  hatched  into  maggots,  which,  after 
a  certain  period  of  growth,  became  trans- 
formed into  perfect  insects  similar  to  their 
parents. 


—  2G7  — 

This  simple  but  conclusive  experiment  of 
Redi,  completely  overthrew  for  the  time  the 
doctrine  of  the  abiogenists  and  demonstrated 
that  in  what  had  been  supposed  to  be  cases 
of  spontaneous  generation,  the  animals  were 
really  produced  from  parents  like  them- 
selves. 

Spallanzani  (1767)  by  a  long  series  of  in- 
genious experiments,  confirmed  the  results 
of  Redi.  He  went  much  further  than  Redi 
and  demonstrated  that  even  in  the  case  of 
the  infusoria  there  was  no  spontaneous 
generation,  but  that  these  animalcules  were 
produced  from  atmospheric  germs. 

Vallisneri,  Swammerdam,  Leuwenbock 
and  other  naturalists  contributed  additional 
arguments  against  the  views  of  the  abio- 
genists, so  that  from  Redi's  time  to  the 
present,  the  tide  of  scientific  opinion  has 
turned  strongly  and  generally  against  spon- 
taneous generation. 

On  the  appearance  of  the  microscope  the 
question  of  abiogenesis  was  again  opened, 
and  it  was  contended  by  many  scientists 
that  though  the  rule  ^'omne  vivum  e  vivo" 
was  applicable  to  the  higher  and  more  com- 
plex organisms,  still,  that  Bacteria  and  the 
lowest  Fungi  and  Protozoa  were  produced  b}^ 
spontaneous  generation  directly  from  dead 
matter. 

The  microscope  discloses  in  animal  and 


—  2G8  — 

vegetable  infusions  ni^^riads  of  tiny  living 
organisms,  entirely  invisible  to  the  unaided 
eye.  An  organic  infusion  is  a  fluid  holding 
organic  matter  in  solution,  and  is  obtained 
by  soaking  an  animal  or  vegetable  substance 
in  water.  If  the  infusion  is  exposed  to  the 
air  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  it  will  be- 
come tenanted  by  a  multitude  of  living 
organisms.  A  delicate  film  or  scum  is  first 
formed  upon  the  surface  of  the  infusion, 
which,  when  examined  under  the  microscope, 
is  seen  to  consist  of  myriad  moving  mole- 
cules. The  size  of  these  points  or  molecules 
is  almost  infinitesimally  small,  and  every  in- 
crease of  power  in  the  instrument  discloses 
smaller  and  smaller  living  and  floating 
particles.  These  organisms  are  certainly 
living,  as  they  are  noticed  to  be  in  very 
active  and  incessant  movement.  Whether 
these  moving  organisms  are  animal  or  vege- 
table is  not  certainl}^  known,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  are  partly  the  one  and  partly 
the  other.  With  length  of  exposure,  many 
of  these  particles  are  seen  to  grow  in  size, 
some  being  short  and  staft'-shaped,  and 
known  as  bacteria ;  and  others  long  and 
worm-like  and  designated  vibrios.  It  is 
very  probable  that  both  the  bacteria  and 
vibrios  are  vegetables. 

At  a  still  later  stage  of  the  exposure,  the 
infusorian    animalcules    appear,   which    are 


—  269  — 

most  undoubtedly  members   of  the  animal 
kingdom. 

The  great  question  is,  how  did  these  living 
organisms  get  into  this  infusion?  Were 
they  generated  spontaneously  from  dead 
matter  or  did  they  spring  from  germs  pre- 
viously existing  in  the  air? 

A  few  scientists  still  maintain  the  former 
view,  while  the  many,   the  accurate  and  the 
skillful  support  the  latter.     This  last  school 
of  scientists  contend  that  the  air  itself,   and 
fluids  and  even  many  solid  bodies  exposed  to 
it,  are  swarming  with  the  minute  germs  of 
living  beings  of  both  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms.     That  these  germs  may  re- 
main dormant  for  great  periods  of  time,  have 
the  power  of  withstanding  temperatures  that 
would  be  absolutely  fatal  to  higher  organ- 
isms ;  but  can  spring  into  active  life  when 
the  surrounding  conditions  favor  their  de- 
velopment.      These   conditions   are    offered 
by  organic  infusions ;  and  it  is  thought  that 
the  living  organisms  that   appear  in  them 
are  merely  developed  from  the  atmospheric 
germs  which  fall  into  them  from  the  air  or 
are  already  contained  in  the  solution  itself. 
Both  the  opponents  and  advocates  of  abio- 
genesis  admit  that  organic  germs  are  present 
in  the  air  and  in  many  other  places  as  well. 
It  may  be  laid  down  as  established  that  the 
atmosphere,  most  fluids  and  many  organic 


—  270- 

and  inorganic  substances,  contain  the  germs 
of  organisms  which  are  capable  of  being 
developed  into  active  life,  when  once  they 
are  placed  under  suitable  conditions. 

All  nature  teems  with  a  life  invisible  ex- 
cept to  the  higher  powers  of  the  microscope, 
a  life  which  reproduces  itself  by  the  ordinary 
and  natural  methods.  The  celebrated  ex- 
periment of  Professor  Schulze  of  Berlin  to 
determine  whether  the  organisms  found  in 
infusions  are  produced  abiogenetically  or 
not,  shows  that  with  due  precaution  no 
animal  or  vegetable  organisms  appear  when 
the  liquid  is  absolute^  protected  from  an 
access  of  the  air.  The  experiment  was  un- 
interruptedly continued  from  the  28th  of 
May  until  the  beginning  of  August ;  ^'  and 
when,  at  last,  the  Professor  separated  the 
different  parts  of  the  apparatus,  he  could 
not  find  in  the  whole  liquid  the  slightest 
trace  of  infusoria  or  confervse,  or  of  mould; 
but  all  three  presented  themselves  in  great 
abundance  a  few  days  after  he  had  left  the 
flask  standing  open." 

A  vessel  with  a  similar  infusion,  which 
he  placed  near  the  apparatus,  contained 
vibriones  and  monads  on  the  second  day  of 
the  experiment,  to  which  were  soon  added 
larger  infusoria. 

It  is  certain  that  the  great  majority  of 
conscientious     and    skillful    experimenters 


—  271  — 

have  found  tliat  if  the  infusion  is  properl}' 
prepared  so  as  to  destroy  all  organic  germs 
in  the  liquid  itself,  and  exclude  those  from 
without,  no  germs  will  appear. 

Some  experimenters,  however,  still  claim 
that  when  using  every  precaution,  the  or- 
ganic germs  still  appear  or  are  spontane- 
ously generated.  Pouchet  made  this  claim 
a  few  years  ago,  repeating,  as  he  af&rms, 
Schulze's  experiment  with  great  precaution. 

Dr.  Charlton  Bastian  is  another  who  main- 
tains that  experiments  made  by  him  prove 
the  occurrence  of  spontaneous  generation. 
He  took  an  organic  infusion,  boiled  it  to 
expel,  as  far  as  possible,  the  air  and  kill  any 
germs  that  might  be  present  in  the  fluid, 
and  then  hermetically  sealed  the  neck  of 
the  flask  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp.  The 
flask  was  then  submitted  for  hours  to  a 
temperature  considerably  above  the  boiling- 
point,  and  then  allowed  to  remain  unopened 
for  a  varying  period.  The  doctor  asserts 
that  notwithstanding  the  vigorous  tests  he 
employed,  the  fluid  in  the  flask  after  a  cer- 
tain time  was  almost  invariably  found  to 
show  under  the  microscope  many  living 
organisms,  both  of  animal  and  vegetable 
nature.  Knowing  very  well  that  the  great 
majorit}^  of  careful  experimenters  find  an 
entirely    different    result  from   that  of  the 


—  272  — 

Doctor,  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  some 
fallacy  lurks  under  his  experiments. 

It  may  be  that  he  did  not  use  a  temper- 
ature sufficiently  high  to  kill  the  germs,  as 
it  is  well  known  that  the  living  germs  of 
some  of  the  lowest  animals  and  plants  are 
not  destroyed  by  a  temperature  equal  to 
that  of  boiling  water.  Indeed  some  of  the 
lowest  forms  of  life  may  be  able  to  endure 
conditions  which  at  first  sight  might  be  re- 
garded as  inevitably  destructive  of  vitality. 

Mr.  Calvert  has  lately  shown  experiment- 
ally that  vibrios  can  endure  a  temperature 
in  some  cases  exceeding  300°  Fahr.  without 
being  killed  thereby.  It  is  fairly  certain 
that  life  is  destroyed  in  most  of  the  higher 
organisms  in  a  range  of  temperature  between 
104°  and  208°  Fahr.  But  it  cannot  be  proven 
that  this  range  is  fatal  to  all  living  matter. 
The  influence  of  temperature  on  life  is  great- 
ly modified  by  the  nature  of  the  medium  in 
which  organisms  are  placed,  and  on  the 
length  of  time  the  temperature  is  applied. 

Most  careful  experimenters  have  found 
that  if  an  ordinary  infusion  of  hay  is  boiled 
but  for  a  few  minutes,  no  development  of 
bacteria  takes  place  in  it,  however  long  it 
may  be  kept ;  while  if  a  little  ammonia  or 
potash  had  been  added  to  the  infusion  it 
would  not  become  sterilized  until  after  an 


—  273  — 

exposure  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water 
for  more  than  an  hour. 

Sometimes  in  the  alkaline  infusion,  the 
bacteria  were  produced  after  an  exposure  of 
two  hours  and  even  after  three  hours.  It  is 
also  found  that  a  longer  exposure  to  a  lower 
temperature  is  equal  to  a  shorter  exposure 
to  a  higher  temperature.  For  instance,  an 
exposure  of  an  hour  and  a  half  to  a  temper- 
ature of  212°  Fahr.  seems  equivalent  to  an 
exposure  of  fifteen  minutes  to  one  of  228° 
Fahr.  Thus  the  fact  that  Pouchet  and  Bas- 
tian  exposed  an  organic  infusion  to  a  certain 
degree  of  temperature,  and  afterwards  dis- 
covered living  germs  in  the  liquid,  is  not 
of  the  smallest  value  as  proof  that  abio- 
genesis  has  taken  place.  There  is  no  proof, 
for  instance,  that  the  organisms  are  dead 
after  the  boiling,  except  that  their  perma- 
nent incapacity  to  grow  and  reproduce  their 
kind ;  and,  again,  since  we  know  that  con- 
ditions may  largely  modify  the  power  of 
resistance  of  such  organisms  to  heat,  it  is 
far  more  probable  that  such  conditions  ex- 
isted in  the  experiments  in  question,  than 
that  the  organisms  were  generated  afresh 
out  of  dead  matter. 

Pasteur  has  been  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
experimenters  on  the  developments  of  or- 
ganic infusions.  He  and  his  associates 
have  established  the  existence  in  the  air  of 

18 


—  274--- 

extraneous  particles,  the  introduction  of 
whicli  into  an  infusion  was  the  necessary 
condition  of  infusorial  life. 

Jeffries  Wy man  demonstrated  that  bacteria 
might  appear  in  closed  flasks  after  boiling ; 
but  that  the  longer  the  boiling  continued, 
the  fewer  the  instances  in  which  bacteria 
were  afterward  developed;  and  they  never 
appeared  in  infusions  which  had  been  boiled 
continuously  for  five  or  six  hours.  Cohn 
observed  certain  bodies  in  connection  with 
bacteria,  which  he  designates  as  resting 
spores,  or  spores  which  do  not  immediately 
germinate,  but  remain  quiescent  for  a  certain 
interval  and  afterward  become  developed 
under  other  conditions. 

According  to  Billroth,  although  the  life 
of  bacteria  is  destroyed  by  boiling,  their 
resting  spores  will  withstand  this  temper- 
ature, and  are  afterward  capable  of  develop- 
ment into  active  forms.  This  may  explain 
the  occasional  appearance  of  microscopic 
life  in  organic  solutions  which  have  been 
subjected  to  boiling. 

Professor  Huxley  well  remarks :  '^  Not 
only  is  the  kind  of  evidence  adduced  in  favor 
of  abiogenesis,  logically  insufficient  to  fur- 
nish proof  of  its  occurrence,  but  it  may  be 
stated  as  a  well-based  induction,  that  the 
more  careful  the  investigator,  and  the  more 
complete  his  mastery  over  the  endless  prac- 


275  — 


tical  difficulties  which  surround  experi- 
mentation on  this  subject,  the  more  certain 
are  his  experiments  to  give  a  negative  result ; 
while  positive  results  are  no  less  sure  to 
crown  the  efforts  of  the  clumsy  and  the 
careless." 

But  it  is  argued  that  the  h3^pothesis  of 
Evolution  necessarily  demands  a  belief  in 
abiogenesis.  So  much  the  worse  for  evolu- 
tion. Professor  Huxley  admits :  ''  That  at 
the  present  moment  there  is  not  a  shadow 
of  trustworthy  direct  evidence  that  abio- 
genesis does  take  place,  or  has  taken  place, 
within  the  period  during  which  the  existence 
of  life  on  the  globe  is  recorded." 

But  if  materialistic  evolution  is  true,  liv- 
ing organisms  must  have  arisen  from  not- 
living  matter,  because  this  hypothesis  of 
evolution  does  not  admit  of  a  creative  act, 
and  insists  moreover  that  this  globe  was 
once  in  the  gaseous  state. 

The  Evolution  hypothesis  of  the  material- 
ists is  that  in  the  early  stages  of  the  earth's 
histor}^,  life  could  not  possibly  exist  upon 
it,  owing  to  the  high  temperature  and  the 
peculiar  combination  of  its  chemical  ele- 
ments, and  as  living  beings  subsequent^ 
made  their  appearance,  they  must  neces- 
sarily have  originated  by  the  spontaneous 
organization  of  inanimate  materials ;  and 
that  these  primitive  and  imperfect  structures 


—  276  — 

have  graduall}^,  by  modification  and  descent, 
given  rise  to  all  the  forms  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  now  inhabiting  the  globe. 

When  the  globe  was  in  this  glowing  gas- 
eous condition,  living  matter  could  not  have 
existed  in  it,  life  being  entirely  incompatible 
with  the  gaseous  state. 

Rejecting  the  idea  of  a  creative  act,  and 
driven  from  abiogenesis,  these  materialistic 
evolutionists  adopt  the  hypothesis  of  Sir  W. 
Thomson  that  the  germs  of  living  things 
have  been  transported  to  our  globe  from 
some  other  world.  But  no  hypothesis  could 
possibly  be  more  absurd  and  ridiculous  than 
this.  Sir  William  in  his  anxiety  to  ignore 
the  existence  of  God  and  the  creative  act, 
repudiates  entirely  his  scientific  instincts, 
for  he  is  certainly  a  great  scientist,  particu- 
larly in  the  field  of  electricity. 

No  matter  from  abroad,  from  planetary 
or  interstellar  spaces,  can  reach  the  earth's 
surface  without  being  enormously  heated. 
Once  any  particle  of  matter  comes  within 
the  earth's  attraction,  it  is  drawn  with 
mighty  force.  When  the  body  reaches  our 
atmosphere,  its  velocity  is  very  great  and 
the  friction  of  the  air  would  raise  it  into 
the  hundred  of  thousand  degrees  Fahr. 
The  earth  is  moving  in  its  orbit  around  the 
sun  at  a  speed  of  i8  miles  a  second.  This 
velocity  alone  would  heat  the  body  encount- 


—  277  — 

ering  our  atmosphere  to  a  very  higli  degree 
of  temperature,  amply  sufficient  to  absolute- 
1}^  dissipate  into  vapor  any  organic  germs 
that  might  be  found  upon  it.  While  the 
surface  of  such  wandering  bodies  would  be 
thus  raised  to  a  glowing  heat,  the  interior 
is  chilled  with  the  cold  of  space,  400°  Fahr. 
below  zero.  The  heat  of  the  surface  and 
the  cold  of  the  interior  would  be  alike  ab- 
solutely fatal  to  living  germs. 


Chapter  XVII. 

RESULTS  OF  BIOLOGY. 
{Transmutation  of  Species?) 

To  justly  define  the  term  species  is  one 
of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  the  whole  range 
of  Biology.  The  word  itself  is  derived  from 
the  Latin,  specere,  to  look,  and  signifies  the 
natural  appearance,  the  shape,  form,  qualit}^ 
or  kind. 

Webster  defines  species  as  a  permanent 
class  of  existing  things,  or  beings,  associated 
according  to  attributes,  or  properties  which 
are  determined  by  scientific  observation. 
These  attributes  differ  in  the  different 
sciences.  In  the  kingdom  of  life,  a  species 
is  an  ideal  group  of  individuals  resembling 
one  another  in  essential  characteristics,  and 


—  278  — 

capable  of  indefinitely  continued  fertile  re- 
production through  the  sexes. 

A  form  resulting  from  variation  which 
may  be  perpetuated  by  any  mode  of  propa- 
gation, is  called  a  variety  or  race. 

The  great  Swede,  Linnaeus,  one  of  the 
most  philososophic  naturalists  of  all  the 
ages,  sa^^s:  "Totidem  numeramus  species 
quot  in  principio  formse  sunt  creatse  "  ("  We 
reckon  as  many  species  as  there  were  forms 
created  in  the  beginning"). 

Linnaeus  embodies  in  this  famous  formula 
the  theory  of  creation  and  the  permancy  of 
species.  He  admitted  the  existence  of  vari- 
eties or  the  variability  of  species  within  a 
limited  range. 

This  opinion  of  Linnaeus  concerning 
species  carries  great  weight,  for  he  was  a 
naturalist  of  transcendent  merit,  remarkable 
for  his  enthusiasm  and  untiring  industry  as 
well  as  for  the  systematic  spirit  of  inquiry 
pervading  his  immense  labors. 

Naturalists  generally  have  regarded  spe- 
cies as  unchanging  throughout  the  longest 
succession  of  generations,  except  within  nar- 
row and  marked  limits,  and  have  substan- 
tially adopted  the  definition  of  Buffon  :  "A 
species  is  a  constant  succession  of  individuals 
similar  to  and  capable  of  reproducing  each 
other." 

Few  works  have  ever  met  with  such  sue- 


—  279  — 

cess  as  the  Natural  Histor}^  of  Buffon.  It  has 
been  translated  into  most  of  the  languages 
of  Christendom.  No  naturalist  that  ever 
lived  had  deeper  intuitions  of  the  unitary 
laws  of  nature,  physical,  instinctual,  and 
rational,  than  Buffon ;  and  few  writers  on 
nature  had  more  poetical  views  of  truth  and 
beauty  than  he.  When  he  has  declared 
himself  so  strongly  for  the  fixity  of  species, 
it  deservedly  has  great  weight  with  natural- 
ists. 

*'  That  which  is  the  most  constant  and 
unalterable  in  nature,"  says  Buffon,  'Ss  the 
type  or  form  of  each  species  ;  that  which  is 
the  most  variable  and  corruptible  is  the 
matter  or  the  substance  which  clothes  the 
form." 

Lamarck,  however,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  present  centur}^  denied  the  perma- 
nence and  separate  creation  of  species,  de- 
claring that  existing  forms  of  life  have 
descended  by  true  generation  from  pre- 
existing forms.  He  maintained  that  all 
species,  man  included,  are  descended  from 
species  of  inferior  organization ;  whilst  to 
account  for  the  simple  forms  found  at  the 
present  time  upon  the  earth,  he  claims  that 
they  are  the  product  of  spontaneous  gener- 
ation. 

Lamarck  ^'  conceived  that,  an  animal  being 
brought  into  new  circumstances,  and  called 


—  280  — 

Upon  to  accommodate  itself  to  these,  tlie 
exertions  which  it  consequently  made  to 
that  effect,  caused  the  rise  of  new  parts,  on 
the  contrary,  when  new  circumstances  left 
certain  existing  parts  unused,  these  parts 
gradually  ceased  to  exist.  Something  an- 
alogous was  produced  in  vegetables,  by 
changes  in  their  nutrition,  in  their  absorp- 
tion and  transpiration,  and  in  the  quantity 
of  caloric,  light,  air,  and  moisture  which 
they  received.  This  principle,  with  time, 
is  sufficient  for  the  advance  from  the  nomad 
to  the  mammal." 

Thus,  Lamarck  rests  his  hypothesis  chief- 
ly on  the  well-known  effect  of  use  or  exercise 
in  changing  and  strengthening  an  organ, 
and  of  disuse  in  destroying  or  atrophying  it. 

Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  and  others  followed 
closely  after  Lamarck,  but  with  more  caution. 

Lamarck's  admirers  and  followers  admit 
that  he  claimed  entirely  too  much  for  the 
effect  of  use,  or  disuse.  Use  and  disuse 
could  never  do  what  he  demands  of  them. 
Even  Darwin,  who  always  moves  with  the 
greatest  scientific  caution,  completely  rejects 
Lamarck's  notion,  that  new  and  simple 
forms  are  continually  being  produced  by 
spontaneous  generation.  ''  I  need  hardly 
say,"  remarks  Darwin,  ''  that  science  in  her 
present  state  does  not  countenance  the  belief 


—  281  — 

that  living  creatures  are  now  ever  produced 
from  inorganic  matter." 

In  179S,  Lamarck  was  intrusted  with  the 
department  of  invertebrata  in  the  museum 
of  natural  liistory  in  Paris.  He  became  a 
great  student  of  these  inferior  organisms  and 
did  a  great  deal  for  this  branch  of  Zoology. 
He  is  the  father  of  the  doctrine  of  appetency, 
or  that  new  organs  could  be  produced  in 
animals  by  the  simple  exertion  of  the  will, 
called  into  action  by  the  creation  of  new 
wants;  and  that  the  organs  thus  acquired 
could  be  transmitted  by  generation. 

In  support  of  his  doctrine,  Lamarck  cites 
the  existence  of  tentacles  on  the  head  of  the 
snail,  which  derive  their  origin  from  the 
desire  of  the  animal  united  with  endeavor 
perpetuated  and  imperceptibly  working  its 
effect  through  a  series  of  generations,  to 
possess  organs  capable  of  examining  the 
bodies  it  encounters ;  and  the  same  thing 
has  happened,  he  asserts,  *'  to  all  races  of 
gasterpods,  in  which  necessity  has  induced 
the  habit  of  touching  bodies  with  some  part 
of  their  head." 

His  greatest  admirers  are  forced  to  admit 
that  Lamarck  as  a  naturalist  is  very  marked- 
ly deficient  in  sobriet}^  of  thought,  precision 
of  statement,  and  coolness  of  judgment. 

Lamarck  is  considered  the  modern  origi- 
nator of  the  hypothesis  of  the  variation  of 


.  —  282  — 

species,  because  he  first  drew  public  atten- 
tion to  it.  He  was  most  enthusiastic  in 
maintaining  his  doctrines  and  when  he 
found  facts  wanting  to  support  his  views, 
he  freely  called  upon  his  fancy  to  suppty 
them.  x\nd  Lamarck  although  a  famous 
zoologist,  has  rendered  himself  frequent^ 
ridiculous  b}^  his  unlikely  statements. 

The  greatest  because  the  ablest  advocate 
of  the  variability  of  species  or  the  hypothe- 
sis of  evolution,  was  Charles  Darwin.  He 
attributes  to  natural  selection  the  office 
given  to  use  and  disuse  by  Lamarck.  He 
maintains  that  variation  in  species  is  con- 
tinually taking  place  owing  to  the  external 
conditions  to  which  plants  and  animals  are 
subjected.  In  support  of  his  position  he 
adduces  the  changes  which  are  known  to 
result  from  domestication  and  cultivation. 
The  weakest  link  in  his  chain  of  argument 
is  his  confounding  of  variety  with  species. 
He  scarcely  makes  any  distinction  between 
these  terms.  He  thus  places  the  exception 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  rule.  Variety 
is  the  exception  and  species  the  rule. 

Alluding  to  the  selection  that  man  must 
make  in  producing  new  breeds  or  varieties, 
he  insists  that  nature  has  recourse  to  a  sim- 
ilar selection,  in  the  struggle  for  life,  which 
all  animals  and  plants  must  undergo.  In 
this  struggle  the  stronger  or  more  favored 


—  283  — 

organisms  must  overcome  the  weaker  wliicli 
latter  must  cease  to  exist. 

He  says  that  every  animal  and  plant  must 
maintain  this  struggle  for  life  and  be  suc- 
cessful in  maintaining  it  in  order  to  its 
continued  existence,  not  only  against  those 
creatures  that  make  it  their  food,  but  also 
against  those  that  feed  with  it  upon  the  same 
nutriment.  Thus,  the  possession  of  an}- 
slight  advantage  in  the  means  of  procuring 
food,  or  in  the  powers  of  offence  or  defence, 
may  entirely  displace  less  favored  ones,  and 
a  slight  variation  of  this  kind  which  often 
takes  place  may  be  perpetuated. 

The  struggle  for  life  is  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Darwinism.  With  Darwin  the 
modifications  thus  introduced  bv  the  struQ;- 
gle  for  life  account  for  the  changes  in  or- 
ganized beings  from  one  geological  period 
to  another,  and  for  the  great  differences  in 
the  plants  and  animals  of  different  parts  of 
the  world.  ''  Can  it  be  thought  improbable," 
says  Darwin,  '' seeing  that  variations  useful 
to  man  have  undoubtedly  occurred,  that 
other  variations  needful  in  some  way  to 
each  being  in  the  great  and  complex  battle 
of  life,  should  sometimes  occur  in  the  course 
of  thousands  of  generations?  If  such  do 
occur,  can  we  doubt — remembering  that 
many  more  individuals  are  born  than  can 
possibly    survive — that    individuals    having 


—  284  — 

an}^  advantage,  however  slight,  over  others, 
would  have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  and 
of  procreating  their  kind  ?  On  the  other 
hand,  we  may  feel  sure  that  any  variation 
in  the  least  degree  injurious  would  be  rigid- 
ly destroyed.  The  preservation  of  favorable 
variations  and  the  rejection  of  unfavorable 
variations,  I  call  Natui^al  Selection.  Varia- 
tions neither  useful  nor  injurious  would  not 
be  affected  by  natural  selection,  and  would 
be  left  a  fluctuating  element,  as  perhaps 
we  see  in  the  species  called  pol^^morphic." 

Darwin  remarks  that  the  effects  of  natural 
selection  would  best  be  seen  in  islands  and 
countries  surrounded  by  great  barriers  and 
regions  undergoing  strong  physical  changes. 
"  In  such  cases,"  he  sa3^s,  '^  every  slight 
modification,  which  in  the  course  of  ages 
chanced  to  arise,  and  which  in  any  way 
favored  the  individuals  of  any  of  the  species, 
by  better  adopting  them  to  their  altered 
conditions,  woiild  tend  to  be  preserved ;  and 
natural  selection  would  thus  have  free  scope 
for  the  work  of  improvement." 

As  a  further  proof  of  his  hypothesis  of 
natural  selection  he  declares:  "That  it  is 
the  common,  the  widely  diff'used,  and  widel}^ 
ranging  species,  belonging  to  the  larger 
genera  within  each  class,  which  vary  most." 

The  chief  difficulty  of  his  hypothesis,  the 
absence  or  rarity  of  transitional    varieties, 


—  285  — 

he  accounts  for  by  supposing  the  predomi- 
nant forms  to  have  taken  possession  of  their 
districts,  whilst  these  were  in  process  of 
being  stocked;  and  that  these  districts, 
differing  much  in  their  natural  characters, 
the  forms  originating  in  the  comparatively 
unextensive  intermediate  tracts,  have  not 
been  able  to  contend  against  them,  and  have 
become  extinct.  He  points  out  the  possi- 
bility that  areas  now  continuous  may  not 
have  been  so  during  a  long  period,  and  that 
species  may  have  been  formed  whilst  they 
were  broken  up  into  islands. 

Darwin  goes  on  to  say  that :  "  several  facts 
make  me  suspect  that  nerves  sensitive  to 
touch  may  be  rendered  sensitive  to  light, 
and  likewise  to  those  coarser  vibrations  of 
the  air  which  produce  sound." 

Darvv'in  depends  a  great  deal  on  the  unit}^ 
of  t^'pe  throughout  whole  classes  of  creatures, 
and  the  homologies  of  parts  very  different 
from  each  other,  as  in  the  four-limbed  struc- 
ture of  the  vertebrates  generally,  and  even 
the  articulations  of  the  limbs.  He  endeav- 
ors to  trace  the  e3^e  from  the  simplest  to  the 
most  perfect  form  and  to  show  how  gradual 
are  the  transitions  found  on  comparison  of 
existing  creatures,  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

Darwin's  treatise  on  h3^bridism  is  quite 
extensive  and  he  tries  to  show  that  the  gen- 
eral sterility  of  hybrids  presents  no  insuper- 


—  286  — 

able  objection  to  the  hypothesis  of  a  gradual 
modification  of  species,  their  sterility  being 
incidental  on  other  differences,  and  sterility 
occurring  as  he  labors  hard  to  prove,  when 
varieties  are  crossed,  as  well  as  in  the  hy- 
brids of  distinct  species. 

Geology  is  the  nemesis  of  the  Darwinian 
h3'pothesis.  The  difficulties  presented  by 
geology,  Darwin  endeavors  to  obviate  by 
insisting  on  the  imperfection  of  the  geo- 
logical record.  He  does  not  indeed  go  so 
far  as  to  adopt  the  view  of  some  of  his 
collaborateurs  that  the  geological  record  ex- 
hibits to  us  a  succession  of  animals  corre- 
sponding in  their  progressive  development 
with  the  foetal  development  of  the  mam- 
malian embryo.  But  he  points  in  his  own 
defence  to  the  many  connecting  links  in 
the  general  system  of  nature  which  fossils 
seem  to  supply  when  compared  with  existing 
species. 

He  also  tries  to  show  that  his  hypothesis 
is  consistent  with  the  known  facts  of  the 
geographical  distribution  of  species,  and  in 
particular  with  the  remarkable  facts  of  the 
peculiarity  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  some  of 
the  lonely  oceanic  islands  and  of  the  fre- 
quent occurrence  of  the  same  species  both 
in  cold  regions  comparatively  near  the  pole, 
and  on  mountains  far  remote  from  each 
other  in  lower  latitudes;  referring  the  latter 


—  287  — 

class  of  facts  to  former  geological  periods, 
when  the  continental  areas  were  not  the 
same  as  now,  or  when  the  prevailing  cli- 
matic conditions  were  very  different. 

He  points  to  the  correspondence  without 
identity,  of  the  faunas  and  floras  of  the 
northern  parts  of  America  and  of  the  Old 
World  in  support  of  his  position. 

The  claims  of  Darwinism  or  of  the  Hy- 
pothesis of  Evolution  may  be  reduced  to  a 
few  leading  heads,  as  follows : 

''Although  the  individuals  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms  bear  a  general  like- 
ness to  their  progenitors,  still  they  are  not 
like  them  in  every  respect  but  slightly  vary 
in  some  particular  or  other. 

These  variations,  however  slight,  may  be 
transmitted  under  certain  favorable  circum- 
stances from  generation  to  generation. 

By  breeding  or  artificial  selection,  man 
has  produced  races  in  which  the  variation 
has  become  permanent  and  frequently  as 
widely  different  from  the  original  progeni- 
tors as  are  some  species  from  one  another. 

Our  planet  is  changing  and  new  conditions 
of  life  are  constantly  arising. 

Animals  and  plants  give  rise  to  more 
progeny  than  can  be  preserved  and  the 
young  not  being  exactly  alike,  natural 
selection  will  ensue  wherebv  individuals 
possessing  any  variation    favorable    to  the 


—  288- 

peculiarities  of  tlie  species  will  tend  to  be 
preserved.  Individuals  wanting  these  favor- 
able conditions  will  gradually  disappear  in 
the  struggle  for  existence. 

Individuals  least  adopted  to  their  environ- 
ment will  be  weeded  out  in  this  sifting  pro- 
cess, while  the  '^  survival  of  the  fittest "  is 
secured. 

The  fortunate  individuals  will  transmit 
to  future  generations  the  variations,  to  which 
they  owe  their  preservation. 

Thus  varieties  are  produced,  then  races 
and  with  sufficient  time  (infinite)  distinct 
species  appear. 

Given  infinite  time  for  the  work  of  evolu- 
tion on  the  surface  of  our  globe  all  the 
animals  and  plants  now  flourishing  may 
have  been  derived  by  natural  selection  from 
a  single  primitive  being." 

Admitting  the  insuperable  objections 
against  natural  selection  being  alone  a  suffi- 
cient cause  for  the  production  by  evolution 
of  all  existing  species  from  pre-existing 
ones  Darwin  sought  a  supplementary  cause 
in  what  he  terms  ^''  Sexual  Selection.''^ 

Darwin  maintains  that  among  many  of 
the  animal  species  there  is  always  a  severe 
contest  between  the  males  for  the  possession 
of  the  females,  these  latter  yielding  them- 
selves passably  to  the  victors. 


—  289  — 

In  these  contests  the  victorious  males 
must  certainly  have  a  natural  advantage  of 
some  kind  over  the  discomfited  ones.  The 
victors  will  have  the  more  numerous  prog- 
eny and  these  will  perpetuate  the  advantage 
of  their  progenitors. 

Again  he  asserts  that  in  other  animal 
species  the  choice  of*  pairing  lies  with  the 
female,  the  male  being  passive.  The  females 
select  the  more  desirable  males,  Darwin 
claiming  that  color  and  song  are  the  most 
potent  factors  in  directing  their  choice. 
These  attractions  will  be  passed  down  and 
intensified  from  generation  to  generation 
and  form  well-marked  breeds. 

The  following  are  the  difficulties  which 
the  disciples  of  the  Darwinian  h3^pothesis 
have  failed  to  answer  satisfactorily  upon  the 
principle  of  natural  selection:  '^Variations 
must  exist  before  natural  selection  can  take 
hold  of  them  and  preserve  them. 

Natural  selection  can  preserve  a  variation 
but  cannot  initiate  one.  Natural  selection 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  "with  the  origin 
of  a  variation  and  variabilit}^  in  the  indi- 
vidual must  depend  upon  an  internal  law 
with  which  we  are  not  acquainted. 

The  law  that  originates  a  variation  must 
be  of  more  importance  than  the  one  that 
preserves  it.  Unfavorable  variations  must 
be  as  common  as  favorable  ones.     The  best 

19 


—  290  — 

that  natural  selection  can  do  is  to  preserve 
the  latter  while  it  can  produce  neither. 

Seeing  that  natural  selection  cannot  oc- 
casion the  most  insignificant  variation  to 
demand  any  belief  in  it  as  a  constant  and 
universal  agent  in  modifying  all  living 
beings,  requires  that  variations  should  be 
continually  occurring  and  that  they  should 
not  be  extensive  in  amount. 

But  the  contrarv  we  knovv^  to  be  true,  that 
sudden  and  striking  variations  frequently 
occur  for  which  no  cause  can  be  given  and 
for  which  natural  selection  cannot  possibly 
account.  This  very  much  enhances  the 
probability  that  variability  of  every  kind 
depends  on  some  internal  law  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  outside  conditions. 

A  favorable  variation  must  occur  simul- 
taneously in  many  individuals  to  produce  a 
new  breed  or  variety.  A  variation,  however 
favorable,  has  no  chance  of  perpetuating 
itself  unless  it  presents  itself  in  more  than 
one  individual  at  the  same  time.  But  the 
probabilities  are  overwhelmingly  against  the 
simultaneous  appearance  of  the  same  varia- 
tion in  numerous  individuals  of  a  species. 

Thus  while  man  with  great  care  and  wise 
intelligent  choice  may  produce  a  new  breed 
it  is  highly  improbable  that  natural  selec- 
tion if  left  to  itself,  can  produce  a  permanent 
new  variety.     The  same  parents  may  give 


—  291  — 

rise  to  several  groups  of  individuals  differ- 
ing widely  in  some  characteristics  from  each 
other  and  from  the  parents,  but  which  are 
sexless  and  so  incapable  of  perpetuating 
their  peculiarities  b}^  wa}^  of  inheritance,  and 
yet  heredity  is  the  only  medium  through 
which  natural  selection  can  operate." 

The  doctrine  of  evolution  by  natural 
selection  requires  that  the  variability  of  a 
species  is  indefinite.  Now,  while  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  individuals  com- 
posing any  species  vary  more  or  less  among 
themselves,  still  there  is  no  proof  that  the 
variability  of  any  species  is  indefinite.  On 
the  contrary,  there  are  very  strong  reasons 
to  show  that  each  species  is  bounded  by  an 
uncertain  but  definite  range  of  variability. 
And,  however  far  apart  the  extreme  terms 
of  this  range  ma\^  lie,  there  runs  between 
them  the  ''line  of  safet}^"  or  normal  line 
wdiich  is  occupied  by  the  individuals  which 
are  looked  on  as  the  type  of  the  species. 

The  advocates  of  natural  selection  tell  us 
that  its  action  is  extremely  slow.  The 
records  of  Geology  show  that  geological 
time  must  have  been  really  vast,  still  it 
would  be  no  more  than  a  mere  drop  in  the 
ocean  compared  with  the  inconceivable  lapse 
of  time  required  by  natural  selection,  ac- 
cording to  the  figures  of  its  advocates,  to  do 
its  work. 


—  292  — 

The  essence  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution 
by  natural  selection  is  the  almost  entire 
impossibility  of  one  species  being  converted 
into  another  otherwise  than  by  an  extremely 
slow  process,  during  which  a  vast  number 
of  generations  lived  and  died. 

We  have  certain  definite  data  as  to  the 
duration  of  a  species.  For  we  know  that 
many  existing  species  have  lived  without 
change,  during  a  very  vast  period  of  time. 
Both  geology  and  astronomy  claim  to  show 
that  the  space  of  time  required  by  natural 
selection  for  the  biological  revolutions  which 
we  know  to  have  occurred  since  the  Lauren- 
tian  period  is  a  physical  impossibility. 

And  Sir  William  Thomson  demonstrates 
that  there  are  good  grounds  to  be  drawn 
from  other  departments  of  physical  science 
to  show  that  the  time  which  has  elapsed 
since  the  appearance  of  life  on  the  globe  is 
far  below  that  demanded  by  natural  selec- 
tion to  accomplish  the  task  demanded  of  it 
by  its  advocates. 

H.  Alle3me  Nicholson,  an  impartial  wit- 
ness, says  in  his  Biology:  "The  theory  of 
the  evolution  of  species  by  natural  selection 
implies  of  necessity  that  one  species  can 
only  be  converted  into  another  through  the 
medium  of  a  great  number  of  successive 
forms,  graduating  into  one  another,  each 
member  of  the  series  differing  from  its  im- 


—  293  — 

mediate  neighbors  in  but  minute  characters. 
If,  therefore,  an}^  existing  species  has  de- 
scended from  any  pre-existing  species,  there 
must  at  one  time  have  existed  between  the 
two  species  a  graduated  series  of  intermedi- 
ate forms.  When  we  consider  the  enormous 
number  of  living  animals  and  plants,  and 
the  still  more  enormous  number  of  extinct 
forms  wdiicli  we  know,  or  ma}'  infer,  to  have 
existed  in  past  time,  it  becomes  clear — if 
evolution  be  true — that  the  number  of  mi- 
nutely intermediate  forms  must  have  been 
incalculablv  o:reat.  We  have  therefore  the 
clear  right  to  expect  that  Palaeontology 
should  reveal  to  us  such  intermediate  forms, 
amongst  the  vast  series  of  fossil  remains 
with  which  vv^e  are  acquainted.  We  cannot, 
however,  in  any  case  point  to  such  forms. 
It  is  quite  true  that  there  are  mau}^  instances 
in  which  fossil  animals  may  be  regarded  as 
intermediate  forms  between  great  groups  of 
living  forms,  as  missing  links  in  the  zoolog- 
ical chain.  Such  intermediate  forms,  how- 
ever, are  invariabl}^  sharply  separated  from 
the  forms  which  the}"  connect ;  and  no  case 
is  3' et  known  to  us,  even  taking  the  Tertiary 
period  alone,  in  which  we  can  point  to  a 
graduated  series  of  intermediate  forms,  by 
which  one  well-marked  species  can  be  shown 
to  pass  into  another  equally  well-marked 
species." 


—  294  — 

Charles  Darwin  was  undoubtedly  a  great 
naturalist.  His  w^ork,  ''  Origin  of  Species 
by  means  of  Natural  Selection,"  w^as  prob- 
ably the  most  remarkable  volume  of  the 
century.  It  reached  immediatel}'  a  marvel- 
ous fame,  perhaps  because  of  the  novelty, 
plausibility  and  sensationalism  of  its  doc- 
trine. But  it  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
literary  merit,  great  research  and  shrewd 
scientific  treatment. 

Darwin  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  nat- 
ural histor}^  and  one  of  the  very  first  to 
popularize  science.  He  was,  however,  more 
of  a  writer  on  science  than  a  worker  in  it. 
He  certainly  has  not  done  the  work  for  the 
natural  sciences  that  Linnaens,  Cuvier,  Buff- 
on,  De  Condolle  and  Agassiz  have  done. 
His  hypothesis,  like  all  novelties  and  sensa- 
tions in  the  scientific  world,  however  popular 
and  successful  at  first,  is  being  tested  in  the 
crucible  of  facts  and  is  declared  a  failure 
because  it  cannot  satisfactorily  answer  the 
difficulties  pressed  against  it.  Darwin  main- 
tained the  physiological  relationship  and 
community  of  origin  of  all  living  beings  and 
attempted  to  account  for  the  diversities  of  life 
on  our  globe  by  means  of  continuous  de- 
velopment, without  the  intervention  of  a 
special  creative  act  at  the  origin  of  each 
species. 

The  greatest  names  in  the  natural  sciences 


—  295  — 

have  held  different  opinions  and  have  de- 
clared his  views  to  be  unfounded. 

The  advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  special 
creation  claim  that  species  are  practically 
immutable  productions,  each  of  which  has 
been  specially  created  at  some  point  within 
the  area  in  which  we  now  find  it,  subse- 
quently spreading  from  this  spot  as  far  as 
the  conditions  of  life  were  suitable  for  it. 
And  wdien  a  species  is  found  occup3ang 
two  widely  remote  regions,  it  is  in  conse- 
quence of  some  geological  change  dividing 
the  original  area,  or  because  the  species  had 
been  carried  accidentally  to  a  distance  from 
its  primitive  home. 

As  previously  stated  Linnaeus  and  Buffon 
believed  in  the  immutability  of  species. 

The  eminent  De  Candolle,  who  certainl}^ 
stands  in  the  foremost  ranks  of  botanical 
science,  says  :  ^'  We  unite  under  the  designa- 
tion of  a  species  all  those  individuals  that 
mutually  bear  to  each  other  so  close  a  re- 
semblance as  to  allow  of  our  supposing  that 
they  nia}^  have  proceeded  originally  from  a 
single  being  or  a  single  pair." 

The  greatest  of  zoologists,  Cuvier,  who 
first  arranged  the  animal  world  under  the 
four  types  of  vertebrata,  moUusca,  articulata 
and  radiata,  defines  a  species  as  "a  succes- 
sion of  individuals  which  reproduces  and 
perpetuates  itself." 


—  296  — 

Cuvier  in  his  introduction  to  liis  Animal 
Kingdom  also  says  :  ''  There  is  no  proof  that 
all  the  differences  which  now  distinguish 
organized  beings  are  such  as  ma}^  have  been 
produced  by  circumstances.  All  that  has 
been  advanced  upon  this  subject  is  hypothet- 
ical ;  experience  seems  to  show,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  in  the  actual  state  of  things 
varieties  are  confined  wdthin  rather  narrow 
limits,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  retrace  antiquity-, 
we  perceive  that  these  limits  were  the  same 
as  at  present.  We  are  thus  obliged  to  admit 
of  certain  forms  wdiich  since  the  orimn  of 
things  have  been  perpetuated,  without  ex- 
ceeding these  limits ;  and  all  the  beings 
appertaining  to  one  of  these  forms  constitute 
what  is  termed  a  SpfxiES.  Varieties  are 
accidental  subdivisions  of  species.  Gener- 
ation beino-  the  onlv  means  of  ascertainino; 
the  limits  to  which  varieties  mav  extend, 
species  should  be  defined,  the  reunion  of 
individuals  descended  from  one  another,  or 
from  common  parents,  or  from  such  as 
resemble  them  as  closel}^  as  they  resemble 
each  other."  Cuvier  believed  in  the  abso- 
lute fixity  of  species. 

Le  Conte  sa^^s  :  ''  The  study  of  species,  as 
they  now  are,  would  probabl}^  not  suggest, 
certainly  could  not  prove,  the  theory  of 
their  origin  by  derivation  or  transmutation." 

And    Asa    Gray:     "But    organic    things, 


—  297- 

vegetables  and  animals,  exist  as  mdividual 
bemgs.  Eacli  owes  its  existence  to  a  parent, 
and  produces  similar  individuals  in  its  turn. 
So  each  individual  is  a  link  of  a  chain  ;  and 
to  this  chain  the  natural-historian  applies 
the  name  of  SpEcies.  All  the  descendants 
from  the  same  stock  therefore  compose  one 
species.  And  it  was  from  our  observing, 
that  the  several  sorts  of  plants  or  animals 
steadily  reproduce  themselves, — or,  in  other 
words,  keep  up  a  succession  of  similar  in- 
dividuals,— that  the  idea  of  species  origi- 
nated. So  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the 
Creator  established  a  definite  number  of 
species  at  the  beginning,  which  have  con- 
tinued by  propagation,  each  after  its  kind." 
Agassiz  and  Gould  in  their  Zoology: 
''The  specific  name  is  the  lowest  term  to 
which  we  descend,  if  we  except  certain 
peculiarities,  generally  induced  by  some 
modification  of  native  habits,  such  as  are 
seen  in  domestic  animals.  These  are  called 
varieties,    and    seldom    endure    beyond    the 

causes   which    occasion    them The 

constancy  of  species  is  a  phenomenon  depend- 
ing on  the  immaterial  nature.  Animals, 
and  plants  also,  produce  their  kind,  gener- 
ation after  generation.  We  shall  hereafter 
show  that  all  animals  ma^^  be  traced  back, 
in  the  embryo,  to  a  mere  point  in  the  yoXVi 
of  the  ^gg^  bearing  no  resemblance  whatever 


—  298-^ 

to  the  future  animal ;  and  no  inspection 
would  enable  us  to  declare  with  certainty 
what  that  animal  is  to  be.  But  even  here 
an  immaterial  principle  is  present,  which  no 
external  influence  can  essentially  modify, 
and  determines  the  growth  of  the  future 
being.  The  egg  of  the  hen,  for  instance, 
cannot  be  made  to  produce  any  other  animal 
than  a  chicken,  and  the  egg  of  the  codfish 
produces  only  the  cod.  It  may  therefore  be 
said  with  truth,  that  the  chicken  and  the 
cod  existed  in  the  egg  before  their  formation 
as  such.  ...  It  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation,  that  individuals  of  the  same 
species  have  the  same  general  appearance, 
by  which  their  peculiar  organization  is 
indicated.  The  transmission  of  these  char- 
acteristics, from  one  generation  to  the  next, 
is  justly  considered  as  one  of  the  great  laws 
of  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  Kingdoms.  It 
is,  indeed,  one  of  the  points  on  which  the 
definition  of  species  is  generally  founded." 

Thus  the  men  who  have  done  the  most 
for  the  natural  sciences  are  a  unit  for  the 
special  creation  and  constancy  of  species. 


—  299  — 

Chapter  XVIII. 

RESULTS  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY. 
{The  Human  Species.) 

Anthropology  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
dudo(ozo-,  man,  and  /^r^c,  disconrse,  and  is  the 
science  of  man  considered  in  his  entiret}^  as 
composed  of  a  body  and  soul. 

It  is  the  highest  branch  of  Zoology  and 
embraces  in  some  measure  the  sciences  of 
Anatomy,  Physiolog}^,  Psychology,  Philolo- 
gy, Ethnology,  Ethics  and  Sociology. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  human 
species  is  one  or  several,  has  divided  anthro- 
pologists into  Monogenists  and  Pol3'genists. 

Monogenists  sa}^  that  all  the  races  of  men 
are  derived  from  one  common  stock,  that 
there  is  but  one  single  human  species,  and 
that  the  differences  of  color,  features  and 
stature  which  distinguish  the  inhabitants  of 
the  different  countries  of  the  world  are  the 
result  of  accidental  conditions  which  onl}^ 
form  varieties  of  a  primitive  type. 

The  Poh^genists  assert  that  the  above 
differences  are  fundamental  and  that  the 
various  human  races  must  be  regarded  as 
several  species  entirely  independent  of  each 
other. 

As  has  alread}^  been  remarked  when  treat- 
ing of  Biolog3^  the  most  illustrious  natural- 


—  800  — 

ists,  Cuvier,  Linnaeus,  Buifon,  Humboldt, 
the  two  Geoffreys  and  Miiller,  however 
much  they  may  differ  on  other  doctrines, 
all  perfectly  agree  in  accepting  monogenism. 

Quatrefages  says  that:  ''  Species  is  a  col- 
lection of  individuals  more  or  less  resembling 
each  other,  which  may  be  regarded  as  having 
descended  from  a  single  primitive  pair  by 
an  uninterrupted  and  natural  succession  of 
families." 

The  idea  of  resemblance,  in  this  defini- 
tion, is  made  of  less  importance  and  sub- 
ordinate to  that  of  filiation. 

The  same  author  defines  Variety  as :  "  An 
individual  or  a  number  of  individuals  be- 
longing to  the  same  sexual  generation,  which 
is  distinguished  from  the  other  representa- 
tives of  the  same  species  b}^  one  or  several 
exceptional  characters." 

When  the  characters  peculiar  to  a  variety 
become  hereditary,  that  is,  when  the}^  are 
transmitted  from  generations  to  the  descend- 
ants of  the  first  modified  individual,  a  7^ace 
is  formed. 

Quatrefages  defines  the  Race  to  be :  ^'  A 
number  of  individuals  resembling  each 
other,  belonging  to  one  species,  having  re- 
ceived and  transmitting,  b}'  means  of  sexual 
generation,  the  characters  of  a  primitive 
variety." 

It  is  universally  admitted  that  the  White 


-301- 

and  the  Negro  are  the  extreme  types  in  the 
human  series.  Polygenists  claim  that  the 
differences  between  the  White  and  the 
Negro  are  too  great  to  allow  them  to  be 
classed  in  the  same  species. 

On  the  contrary,  the  monogenists  seem  to 
find  ver\^  little  difficulty  in  demonstrating 
that  the  limits  of  variation  in  animals  and 
plants  are  almost  invariabty  greater  than 
between  the  White  and  the  Negro,  the  two 
^  extreme  races  of  the  human  kind. 

In  vegetables,  flowers-  and  fruit-trees  the 
limits  of  variation  are  very  extensive  indeed. 
The  cabbage  numbers  forty-seven  principal 
races,  each  being  divided  into  numbers  of 
'  secondary  and  tertiary  ones  and  all  of  one 
only  species.  The  distance  which  separates 
the  headed  cabbage  from  the  cauliflower  is 
immensely  greater  than  that  between  any 
of  the  races  of  man. 

We  will  be  forced  to  the  same  conclusion 
in  regard  to  animals,  too,  if  we  compare 
them  with  man,  organ  for  organ. 

Color  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  different  races  of  men.  Yet  melanism 
is  more  apparent  in  the  many  races  of  ani- 
mals and  fowls  than  in  man.  The  skin  of 
the  white  poodle  is  white,  although  black  is 
the  ordinary  color  of  dog  skin.  Dogs  and 
horses  vary  from  one  extreme  of  color  to 
another,    and    oftentimes    assume   a  white 


—  302  — 

hair  on  a  black  skin.  Domestic  fowls  of 
French  breed  have  a  white  skin  ;  those  of 
Cochin  China  a  shade  of  yellow ;  there  are 
black  fowls  with  a  black  skin ;  and  the  silk 
hen  of  Japan  has  a  dark  skin  beneath  white 
feathers.  Color  is  not  a  specific  bnt  an 
accidental  difference  and  depends  on  cir- 
cnmscribed  and  transitory  modifications. 
Linnseus  remarks  on  the  head  of  color: 
^'Niminm  ne  crede  colori." 

The  modifications  of  the  hair  and  of  the 
villosities  in  general  in  human  races  are 
much  less  marked  and  extensive  than  in  the 
varieties  of  animals  of  the  same  species. 
All  men  possess  hair,  whereas  it  is  well 
known  that  there  are  hairless  dogs,  horses 
and  oxen.  With  mankind  hair  remains 
hair  however  the  race  may  vary,  whether 
coarse,  stiff,  fair,  black  or  w^ooly  ;  or  whether 
the  transverse  section  be  circular,  oval  or 
elliptical.  On  the  contrary  the  wooly  fleece 
of  sheep  is  in  some  countries  replaced  by 
short  smooth  hair,  and  the  hair  of  the  wald 
boar  by  a  sort  of  coarse  wool. 

In  regard  to  variation  in  size  it  is  found 
by  actual  measurement  to  be  twice  as  great 
in  the  horse  as  in  man,  three  times  in  the 
sheep  and  rabbit  and  four  times  as  great  in 
the  dog.  The  stature  of  the  Patagonian  to 
that  of  the  members  of  the  Akka  tribe  is  as 
three  to  two,  while  the  size  of  the  St.  Bern- 


—  303  — 

ard  to    the  small    spaniel,  or  of  the  statel}^ 
greyhound  to  the  beagle,  is  as  five  to  one. 

The  modifications  of  the  head  in  the  vari- 
eties of  animals  of  the  same  species  are 
much  greater  than  in  the  different  races  of 
men.  There  is  a  greater  difference  in  the 
heads  of  the  wild  boar  and  the  domestic  pig, 
in  the  heads  of  the  bull-dog,  greyhound  and 
spaniel,  than  in  the  White  and  the  Papuan. 
The  oxen  of  Buenos  Ay  res  have  preserved 
the  horns  while  those  of  Mexico  have  lost 
them. 

In  regard  to  a  number  of  anatomical  char- 
acters there  is  a  much  greater  difference 
between  races  of  animals  of  the  same  species 
than  between  the  human  races.  There  is 
a  rudimentary  fifth  toe  in  the  hind-paw  of 
some  races  of  dogs  which  disappears  in 
others.  In  some  races  of  pigs  a  third  medial 
toe  is  developed,  while  normall}^  this  animal 
has  two  medial  toes. 

In  some  races  of  dogs,  sheep  and  goats 
the  tail  is  reduced  to  a  short  coccyx. 

Such  marked  anatomical  variations  as 
these  and  others  that  might  be  named  are 
never  found  in  mankind. 

The  specific  unit}^  of  all  mankind  is  not 
only  demonstrated  on  morphological  grounds 
or  by  external  resemblance,  but  still  more 
strikingly  and  conclusiveh^  on  ph3^siological 
ones.    In  the  crossings  between  the  different 


—  304  — 

races  of  man,  we  liave  a  means  of  determin- 
ing whether  the  different  human  groups  are 
only  races  of  a  single  species,  or  rather 
distinct  species. 

When  sexual  unions  take  place,  in  plants 
and  animals,  between  races  of  the  same 
species  and  between  different  species,  we 
have  what  is  called  a  C7'oss.  In  the  first 
named  instance  the  cross  produces  a  mongrel^ 
and  in  the  second  a  hybrid.  The  product 
of  the  union  of  mongrels  is  called  a  mon- 
grel, and  of  hybrids  a  hybrid  when  the  cross 
unions  are  fertile. 

The  phenomena  presented  in  the  crossing 
of  human  groups  must  be  compared  with 
those  witnessed  in  the  crossings  of  animals 
and  plants  in  relation  to  the  production  of 
mongrels  and  hybrids.  If  the  crossings  of 
the  human  groups  have  the  character  of 
hybridism,  then  as  in  the  case  of  animals 
and  plants,  we  must  conclude  that  the  human 
races  are  specifically  distinct  and  form  many 
human  species ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  these 
crossings  bear  the  stamp  of  mongrelism  it 
follows  that  the  groups  are  only  races  form- 
ing one  human  species. 

Mongrelism  may  be  natural  or  artificial. 
Linnaeus  was  the  first  to  discover  the  dis- 
tinction of  sexes  in  plants  and  soon  after 
his  discovery  proved  that  mongrels  could  be 
produced  in  plants  as  in  animals.    M.  Naudin 


—  305  — 

by  a  multitude  of  experiments  demonstrated 
the  fertility  of  the  crossings  between  races 
of  plants.  Isidore  Geoffroy  of  the  Paris 
Museum  proved  that  mongrels  between  the 
different  races  of  sheep,  dogs  and  pigs  were 
invariably  fertile.  Every  gardener  and 
breeder  knows  very  well  that  he  can  without 
difficulty  succeed  in  breeding  races  of  mon- 
grels that  are  fertile  among  themselves. 
AH  known  facts  attest  the  perfect  fertility 
of  mongrels. 

Hybrids,  on  the  other  hand,  or  crosses 
between  species,  exhibit  facts  of  an  entirely 
different  nature. 

The  production  of  h^^brids  may  be  either 
natural  or  artificial.  The  former  is  so  rare 
that  its  reality  has  been  doubted  altogether 
by  the  most  eminent  naturalists.  It  is  es- 
pecially rare  among  wild  animals,  and  Isidore 
Geoffro}^  claims  that  it  is  entirely  unknown 
among  mammalia.  It  is  also  unknown 
among  fishes.  In  domestication  among  the 
order  of  .birds  there  are  a  few  rare  exceptions 
of  spontaneous  crossings  between  different 
species. 

The  intelligent  intervention  of  man  has 
succeeded  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  in  pro- 
ducing crossings  between  a  very  limited 
number  of  different  species  of  animals  and 
plants.  And  all  experimenters  agree  that 
when  unions  have  been  successful  between 

20 


—  306  — 

different  species  the  fertility  is  immediately 
diminished  in  immense  proportions. 

Buffon  and  Daubenton  succeeded  but 
twice  in  their  whole  career  in  producing 
crossings  between  he-goats  and  sheep,  Ti- 
tires ;  and  between  the  ram  and  the  she-goat, 
Musmons,  although  they  made  numberless 
experiments.  Isidore  Geoffroy  invariably 
failed  in  his  endeavors  to  do  so. 

It  is  the  conclusion  of  science  that  there 
are  only  two  species  of  mammals,  the  ass 
and  the  horse,  the  crossing  of  which  is 
really  fertile.  Hybridation  among  animals 
and  plants  w^hen  left  to  themselves  is  most 
extremely  exceptional.  Man  has  succeeded 
with  the  greatest  difficulty  in  producing  a 
few  rare  cases  of  it. 

Again  it  is  an  incontestable  fact  that 
mongrels  retain,  during  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  generations,  the  faculty  of  reproduc- 
ing and  transmitting  to  their  descendants 
the  mixed  character  they  inherited  from 
the  first  parents,  which  effected  the  cross. 
Buffon,  the  two  Geoffroys  St.  Hilaire  and 
Darwin  are  unanimous  on  this  point  and 
have  demonstrated  its  truth  by  a  multitude 
of  experiments. 

Breeders  and  gardeners  take  advantage 
daily  of  this  property  of  mongrels  to  im- 
prove and  modify  many  varieties  of  animals 
and  plants.     Several  races  of  a  single  species 


—  307  — 

will  intermix  in  every  degree  if  in  habitual 
contact  and  left  to  themselves.  This  result 
of  free  intermixing  would  lead  through 
insensible  shades  to  the  different  primitive 
types.  It  is  in  this  way  that  the  races  of 
our  domestic  dogs  and  cats  have  come  into 
existence,  which  continue  perfectl}^  fertile 
notwithstanding  numberless  crossings  of 
every  kind. 

Man  can  with  care  regulate  the  crossing 
between  two  races  and  obtain  a  mongrel  race. 
This  new  race  becomes  settled  and  consoli- 
dated after  a  few  oscillations  between  the 
paternal  and  maternal  types. 

However  great  may  be  the  constancy 
acquired  by  the  new  mongrel  race  as  a 
whole,  it  almost  invariably  happens  that 
some  individuals  reproduce  more  or  less 
faithfully  the  characters  of  one  of  the  types 
'originalh^  crossed.  This  reproduction,  in 
individuals,  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
primitive  types  is  called  Atavism.  Atavism 
(Lat.  x^vus,  grandfather),  then,  is  the  recur- 
rence of  the  original  type  of  a  species  in  the 
progeny  of  its  varieties. 

Fertility  in  the  broadest  acceptation  of 
the  term,  in  animals  and  plants,  between 
themselves  and  between  all  the  races  of  the 
same  species,  is  one  of  the  characters  of 
mongrels.  Atavism  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  midst  of  a  race   considered  to  be  per- 


—  308  — 

fectly  pure,  resulting  from  a  single  cross- 
ing several  generations  back;  and  it  attests 
the  physiological  bond  which  unites  all 
mongrels. 

The  law  of  sterility  of  species  is  as  firmly 
and  absolutely  demonstrated  in  the  organic 
world  as  that  of  attraction  in  the  sidereal 
world.  Should  the  law^  of  attraction  be 
suppressed  in  the  inorganic  world,  general 
chaos  among  the  heavenly  bodies  would  be 
the  result. 

Suppress  the  law  of  the  sterilit}^  of  species 
and  in  a  short  period  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms  would  fall  into  complete 
disorder. 

M.  Godron  has  shown  that  in  vegetable 
hybridism  the  physiological  equilibrium  is 
destroyed  at  the  expense  of  the  organs  con- 
ducive to  the  life  of  the  species  in  favor  of 
those  conducive  to  the  life  of  the  individual. 
The  leaves  and  stalks  relativel}-  to  the  flow- 
ers are  developed  in  an  exaggerated  degree. 
Among  animals  the  case  of  the  mule,  the 
most  common  animal  hybrid,  is  exactly 
similar.  The  mule  is  always  stronger, 
more  robust  and  hardy  than  its  parents,  but 
is  always  sterile. 

With  plants  sterility  is  not  absolute 
among  all  hybrids  of  the  first  generation ; 
still  although  in  a  very  few  of  these  the 
elements  which  characterize  the  two  sexes 


—  309  — 

remain  capable  of  reproduction,  the  fertilit}^ 
is  always  however  immensely  reduced.  The 
male  is  the  one  generally  affected  in  an  en- 
tirely special  manner.  Two  hybrids  of  the 
first  generation  uniting  together  produce 
h^^brids  of  the  second  generation.  Hybrids 
of  the  second  generation  are  as  a  rule  either 
sterile  or  there  is  a  spontaneous  returning 
to  one  or  other  of  the  parent  types.  This 
latter  is  reversion. 

In  some  extremely  rare  instances  fertility 
continues  during  a  number  of  generations, 
resulting  in  the  curious  phenomenon  of 
disordered  variation.  M.  Naudin  followed 
one  of  these  hybrids  through  seven  genera- 
tions and  discovered  that  some  of  the  indi- 
viduals of  each  generation  reverted  to  the 
characters  of  either  of  the  original  parents, 
and  that  the  others  resembled  neither  the 
original  parents,  nor  the  h3'brids  resulting 
from  the  crossings,  nor  was  there  any  re- 
semblance between  the  plants  themselves. 

Thus  the  crossing  of  species  does  not 
produce  a  race,  even  where  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  fertilit}^ ;  proditcifig  only  a  variet}- 
incapable  of  transmitting  their  individual 
characters. 

Hybridism  in  the  animal  kingdom  pre- 
sents if  possible  still  greater  infertilit}^  than 
in  the  vegetable  world.  Thus  the  only  two 
species  the  crossing  of  which  display's  any- 


—  Slo- 
thing approaching  to  regnlar  fertility,  the 
horse  and  the  ass,  merely  produce  a  hybrid, 
the  mule,  absolutely  devoid  of  fertilit}^ 

The  sterility  of  the  mule  was  perfectly 
known  to  Herodotus  and  Plin3\ 

As  among  plants  there  seem  to  be  a  very 
limited  number  of  animals,  particularly 
among  birds,  not  entirely  subject  to  the 
general  law  of  the  sterilit}^  of  hybrids.  But 
even  here  the  faculty  of  reproduction  in  the 
males  is  constantly  weakened,  and  habitually 
disappears  before  the  usual  age ;  the  female 
la3^s  more  rarely,  and  the  eggs  are  fewer  in 
number  and  verv  often  clear. 

By  crossing  and  recrossing  in  a  fixed 
manner  the  goat  and  the  sheep,  hybrids, 
chabins^  are  produced  which  have  three 
eighths  of  the  paternal  and  five-eighths  of 
the  maternal  blood.  These  chabins  can  be 
maintained  for  a  few  generations  but  finally 
return  like  plants  to  the  paternal  types  by 
reversion. 

The  leporides,  resulting  from  a  cross 
between  the  hare  and  the  rabbit,  present 
the  same  phenomenon  of  disordered  varia- 
tions and  reversion. 

The  Agricultural  Society  of  Paris  demon- 
strated that  the  leporides  after  a  few  gener- 
ations reverted  entirely  to  the  rabbit  type. 

There  is  a  vast  and  radical  difference  be- 
tween atavism  and  reversion.     The  mongrel 


—  811  — 

whicli  by  atavism  reassumes  the  characters 
of  one  of  its  paternal  ancestors  still  preserves 
its  mixed  nature.  It  is  different  in  the  cases 
of  reversion  displayed  by  hybrids,  for  one 
of  the  two  bloods  is  irrevocably  expelled. 

Atavism  is  characteristic  of  crossing  be- 
tween races  and  reversion  of  crossing  be- 
tween species.  In  the  case  of  atavism  there 
is  a  possibility  of  the  offspring  of  the  first 
or  second  generation  reproducing  the  essen- 
tial traits  of  its  own  maternal  ancestors. 
Giron  de  Buzareingues  furnishes  a  striking 
example  illustrative  of  this  reproduction. 
He  noticed  it  in  a  family  of  dogs,  crosses 
between  the  setter  and  spaniel.  A  male  of 
this  family,  to  all  appearances  a  setter, 
united  with  a  female  of  pure  setter  breed, 
producing  spaniels,  which  fact  makes  it  very 
clear  that  the  spaniel  blood  had  not  been 
annihilated,  and  that  the  return  to  the  setter 
type  was  only  apparent. 

On  the  contrary  it  is  well  known  that 
Titires  and  Musmons  have  never  in  all  their 
history  had  offspring  affected  by  atavism. 
A  ram  and  sheep  have  never  produced  a 
kid,  nor  a  male  and  female  goat,  a  lamb. 

Hybridism  among  animals  has  never  in 
any  degree  given  rise  to  a  series  of  indi- 
viduals descended  the  one  from  the  other, 
and  preserving  the  same  characters. 

Hybridism  is  then  occasioned  chiefly  by 


—  Sic- 
ilian's interference ;  is  extremely  rare ;  is 
sterile ;  and  even  when  successful  gives  rise 
to  the  phenomena  of  reversion  and  dis- 
ordered variation ;  or  as  Quatrefages  re- 
marks:  "The  characters  of  hybrids  are 
Infertility,  as  a  general  rule,  and,  in  the 
exceptions,  a  very  limited  fertility;  series 
suddenly  cut  short  either  by  infertility, 
by  disordered  variation,  or  by  reversion 
without  atavism.  .  .  .  Species  is  then  a 
reality;  and  science  may  affirm  that  from 
all  appearances  each  species  has  had,  as 
point  of  departure,  a  single  primitive  pair." 
(Human  Species,  page  84.) 

Long  series  of  experiments  have  thus 
clearly  marked  the  distinction  between  spe- 
cies and  races.  Are  then  the  human  groups 
races  or  species  ?  The  white  man  has  pene- 
trated to  every  portion  of  the  habitable 
globe.  He  has  mixed  with  every  human 
kind  and  mixed  races  have  everywhere 
sprung  up  in  his  track.  These  mixed  races 
are  most  broadly  fertile,  much  more  fertile 
than  the  original  races  from  which  they 
sprang.  And  this  fertility  depends  upon 
no  other  circumstances  than  simpl}^  upon 
the  physical  connections  existing  between 
all  men  from  the  lowest  of  the  Negroes  to 
the  first  of  the  Whites. 

Le  Vaillant  gives  an  instanc.e  of  the  great 
fertility  of  mixed  human  races:  "Hottentot 


—  sis- 
women    with    husbands    of   their  own   race 
have  three  or  four  children.     With  Negroes 
this  number  is  tripled,  and  it  is  still  further 
increased  with  Whites." 

Hombron  speaking  of  a  long  experience 
in  Brazil,  Chili  and  Peru,  says:  "I  am  able 
to  state  that  Unions  of  Whites  with  Amer- 
ican women  have  given  the  highest  average 
of  births.  Next  came  the  Negro  and  Ne- 
gress. And  thirdly  the  Negro  and  the 
American  woman." 

Crossings  between  races  could  alone  pre- 
sent facts  of  this  kind.  In  crossings  between 
species,  as  previoUvSl}^  demonstrated,  fertility 
invariably-  diminishes  in  an  immense  ratio. 
Thus  human  groups,  however  different  the}^ 
may  appear  to  be,  are  but  races  of  one  and 
the  same  species  and  not  distinct  species, 
for  invariably  their  crossings  exhibit  the 
characteristic  traits  of  mongrels  and  never 
in  any  respect  of  h3^brids. 

It  is  thus  as  clearly  demonstrated  as  a 
proposition  in  geometr}^  can  possibly  be  that 
there  is  but  one  human  species.  This  is 
the  conclusion  of  Linnaeus,  Buffon,  Cuvier, 
Geoffroy,  Aliiller  and  Humboldt. 

Man  could  not,  therefore,  have  come  by 
transmutation  from  a  lower  species,  as  spe- 
cific evolutionists  claim,  but  by  a  special 
creative  act  of  the  Almighty,  as  the  Mosaic 
record  declares. 


—  314  — 

Genesis  tells  us  that  God  created  man  to 
his  own  image ;  to  the  image  of  God  he 
created  him :  male  and  female  he  created 
them.  Evolutionists  deny  this  declaration 
of  scripture,  asserting  that  there  was  no  need 
of  a  creative  act,  that  the  human  race  came 
in  a  natural  way  through  an  almost  indefi- 
nite series  of  gradations  from  inert  matter 
itself.  Evolutionists  rely  upon  Biology  and 
Anthropology  to  establish  their  theories. 
But  both  Biology  and  Anthropology  very 
plainly  and  positively  favor  the  statement 
of  Moses. 

The  first  and  fundamental  principles  of 
Biology  teach  that  animals  and  plants  are 
composed  of  cells ;  that  the  cell  is  the  mor- 
phological unit  of  the  whole  living  world ; 
that  no  cell  has  arisen  otherwise  than  by 
becoming  separated  from  the  protoplasm  of 
a  pre-existing  cell ;  that  no  living  cell  can 
come  from  dead  matter. 

The  most  eminent  and  most  careful  ex- 
perimenters have  demonstrated  that  abio- 
genesis  or  spontaneous  generation  is  an 
impossibility.  The  men  who  have  done  the 
most  for  the  natural  sciences  are  a  unit  for 
the  special  creation  and  permancy  of  species. 
It  is  as  true  as  a  proposition  in  geometry 
that  there  is  one  only  human  species.  Thus 
link  by  link  Biology  and  Anthropology  have 
woven  a  firm  and  glittering  chain  of  irre- 


-315  — 

fragable  argument,  showing  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely impossible  for  man  to  have  been 
evolved  by  transmutation  from  any  inferior 
species,  but  must  have  come  b}'  a  special 
creative  act  of  the  Almighty  as  the  great 
Hebrew  Prophet  records. 


Chapter  XIX. 

RESULTS  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY.     (Con.) 
{3Ian  not  of  Simian  Descent.) 

Biology  may  be  said  to  be  divided  into 
two  great  camps  concerning  the  problem  of 
man's  origin.  One  camp  claims  a  separate 
creation  for  man,  the  other  derives  him  bv 
gradual  transmutation,  development  or  evo- 
lution from  the  lower  animals. 

Agassiz,  who  eminently  represents  the 
first  school  or  creationists,  savs  :  ^'  There  is 
a  manifest  progress  in  the  succession  of 
beings  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This 
progress  consists  in  an  increasing  similarit}^ 
to  the  living  fauna,  and,  among  the  verte- 
brates especiall}^,  in  their  increasing  resem- 
blance to  man.  But  this  connection  is  not 
the  consequence  of  a  direct  lineage  between 
the    faunas    of   different    ages.      There    is 


—  816  — 

nothing  like  parental  descent  connecting 
them.  The  fishes  of  the  Palaeozoic  age  are 
in  no  respect  the  ancestors  of  the  reptiles  of 
the  Secondary  age,  nor  does  man  descend 
from  the  mammals  which  preceded  him  in 
the  Tertiary  age.  The  link  b}^  which  they 
are  connected  is  of  a  higher  and  immaterial 
nature ;  and  their  connection  is  to  be  sought 
in  the  view  of  the  Creator  himself,  whose 
aim  in  forming  the  earth,  in  allowing  it  to 
undergo  the  successive  changes  which  geol- 
ogy has  pointed  out,  and  in  creating  suc- 
cessively all  the  different  types  of  animals 
which  have  passed  away,  was  to  introduce 
man  upon  the  surface  of  our  globe.''  (Prin- 
ciples of  Zoology,  pp.  205-6.) 

The  Evolutionists  or  Darwinians  maintain 
on  the  contrary  that  man  has  come  by  suc- 
cessive generations  and  transmutation  from 
the  very  lowest  form  of  animal  life. 

Darwin  says  :  "  The  earliest  ancestors  of 
man  were  without  doubt  once  covered  with 
hair ;  both  sexes  having  beards ;  their  ears 
were  pointed  and  capable  of  movement ;  and 
their  bodies  were  provided  with  a  tail  having 
the  proper  muscles.  Their  limbs  and  bodies 
were  acted  on  by  many  muscles,  which  now 
only  occasionally  reappear  in  man,  but  which 
are  still  normally  present  in  the  quadru- 
mana.  The  great  artery  and  nerve  of  the 
humerus  ran  through  a  supracondyloid  fora- 


—  317  — 

men.  At  this,  or  some  earlier  period,  the 
intestine  gave  forth  a  much  larger  diver- 
ticulum or  coecum  than  that  now  existing. 
The  foot,  judging  from  the  condition  of  the 
great  toe  in  the  foetus,  was  then  prehen- 
sile, and  our  progenitors,  no  doubt,  were 
arboreal  in  their  habits,  frequenting  some 
warm  forest-clad  land  ;  the  males  were  pro- 
vided with  canine  teeth  which  served  as 
formidable  weapons."  Again,  Darwin  in 
another  place  goes  on  to  say :  "  The  Catar- 
hine  and  Platyrhine  monkeys  agree  in  a 
multitude  of  characters,  as  is  shown  by  their 
unquestionably  belonging  to  one  and  the 
same  order.  The  many  characters  which 
they  possess  in  common  can  hardly  have 
been  independently  acquired  by  so  many 
distinct  species ;  so  that  these  characters 
must  have  been  inherited.  But  an  ancient 
form  which  possessed  many  characters  com- 
mon to  the  Catarhine  and  Platyrhine  mon- 
keys, and  others  in  an  intermediate  condition, 
and  some  few  perhaps  distinct  from  those 
now  present  in  either  group,  would  undoubt- 
edly have  been  ranked,  if  seen  b}^  a  natural- 
ist, as  an  ape  or  a  monkey.  And  as  man 
under  a  genealogical  point  of  view  belongs 
to  the  Catarhine  or  Old  World  stock,  we 
must  conclude,  however  much  the  conclusion 
may  revolt  our  pride,  that  our  early  progen- 


—  318  — 

itors  would  have  been  properly  thus  desig- 
nated. But  we  must  not  fall  into  the  error 
of  supposing  that  the  early  progenitor  of 
the  whole  Simian  stock,  including  man,  was 
identical  with,  or  even  closely  resembled, 
any  existing  ape  or  monkey."  (Descent  of 
Man,  part  i.  ch.  6.) 

Darwin  and  Haeckel  regard  the  monera 
as  the  first  ancestor  of  all  living  beings. 
Man  has  come  from  the  monera  by  passing 
through  twenty-one  typical  transitory  forms. 
Our  nearest  ancestor  is  now  considered  by 
transmutationists  to  be  the  tailless  catarhine 
apes,  such  as  the  gorilla. 

Indeed,  evolutionists  regard  the  gorilla  as 
on  the  whole  the  most  anthropomorphous 
ape.  It  is  acknowledged,  however,  that  no 
one  of  the  now  living  species  of  apes  was 
the  immediate  ancestor  of  man.  The  Orang 
most  closely  resembles  man  in  respect  to 
the  structure  of  the  brain  ;  the  Chimpanzee 
in  the  form  of  the  skull ;  the  Gorilla,  in  the 
development  of  the  hands  and  feet;  and  the 
Gibbon,  in  the  formation  of  the  chest. 

The  most  sanguine  transmutationists  con- 
fess that  there  is  a  missing  link.  Haeckel 
calls  this  link  the  pithecoid-man  or  ape-man. 
This  being  is  purely  hypothetical  and  not 
the  slightest  vestige  of  which  has  ever  been 
found.     Whereas  had  it  ever  really  existed 


—  319  — 

it  would  have  left  its  record  in  the  earth's 
crust  in  myriads  of  fossils. 

Darwin,  too,  admits  the  necessity  of  this 
link  between  the  ape  and  man.  The  ape 
and  man  differ  essentially  in  respect  to  type. 
Their  organs  closely  correspond  term  for 
term,  but  are  arranged  after  a  very  different 
plan. 

The  arrangement  of  the  organs  in  man 
is  such  as  to  essentially  constitute  him  a 
walker^  wdiile  in  the  ape  they  as  forcibly 
necessitate  his  being  a  climber.  A  walking 
animal  cannot  be  descended  from  a  climbing 
one.  This  alone  is  proof  sufficient  that  man 
could  not  come  from  the  ape. 

There  is  moreover  a  most  striking  differ- 
ence between  man  and  the  highest  apes  in 
the  general  proportions  of  the  body  and 
limbs.  The  greatest  difference  is  noticed  in 
the  structure,  size,  weight  and  convolutions 
of  the  brain. 

The  gorilla's  brain-case  is  smaller,  its 
trunk  larger,  its  lower  limbs  shorter,  its 
upper  limbs  longer  proportionately  than 
man's.  There  is  truly  a  vast  difference  be- 
tween a  man's  and  a  gorilla's  skull.  The 
face  in  the  gorilla,  formed  chiefly  by  the 
great  jaw-bones,  predominates  over  the  cra- 
nium or  brain-case,  while  in  man  the  cranium 
predominates  over  the  face.  The  gorilla 
which  goes  on  all  fours  ordinarily,  and  whose 


—  320  — 

skull  is  inclined  forward,  has  the  occipital 
foramen,  through  which  the  spinal  cord 
passes,  far  back  behind  the  center  of  the 
base  of  the  skull,  whereas  in  man  the  fora- 
men is  placed  just  behind  the  center  of  the 
skull's  base.  The  smallest  adult  human 
cranium  scarcely  ever  measures  less  than  63 
cubic  inches,  while  the  largest  gorilla  cra- 
nium measures  no  more  than  34^  cubic 
inches. 

It  is  certain  that  the  difference  between 
man  and  the  apes  depends,  most  of  all 
things,  on  the  relative  size  and  organization 
of  the  brain.  The  brain  of  the  highest 
apes  is  much  less  complex  in  its  convolu- 
tions than  is  man's.  The  weight  of  a  goril- 
la's brain  hardly  ever  exceeds  20  ounces, 
whereas  man's  scarcely  ever  weighs  less 
than  32  ounces,  although  the  gorilla  is  very 
much  the  larger  animal  of  the  two. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  other  anatomical 
differences  between  man  and  the  higher 
apes.  Professor  Huxley  says  that :  ''Every 
bone  of  the  gorilla  bears  a  mark  by  which 
it  can  be  distinguished  from  the  correspond- 
ing human  bone,  and  that,  in  the  present 
state  of  creation  at  least,  no  intermediary 
being  fills  the  gap  which  separates  man  from 
the  troglodyte." 

Pruner  Bey,  after  much  research,  has 
brought  out  the  fact  that  there  exists  almost 


—  321  — 

invariably  an  inverse  order  in  tlie  develop- 
ment of  the  principal  organs  of  man  and 
the  anthropomorphous  apes.  The  experi- 
ments of  Welker  have  led  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. Welker  found  that  in  man  the 
sphenoidal  angle  diminishes  from  the  time 
of  birth,  whilst  in  the  ape  it  is  alwa^^s  in- 
creasing. 

The  researches  of  Gratiolet  further  show 
that  in  the  ape  the  temporal  sphenoidal 
convolutions  which  form  the  middle  lobe, 
appear  and  are  completed  before  the  anterior 
convolutions  which  form  the  frontal  lobe. 
In  man  there  is  an  inverse  order,  the  frontal 
convolutions  appear  first  and  those  of  the 
middle  lobe  are  formed  subsequently.  How 
can  any  organized  being  be  a  descendant  of 
another  whose  development  is  in  an  inverse 
ratio  to  its  own  ?  So  that  man  cannot  be 
considered  as  descended  from  any  of  the 
Simian  types. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  between  man 
and  the  rest  of  the  vertebrata  numerous  re- 
lations exist,  for  all  the  vertebrata  of  which 
man  is  a  species  are  constructed  upon  the 
same  fundamental  plan.  The  difference 
between  man  and  the  vertebrata  depends 
mostly  upon  the  nature  of  the  brain. 

And  the  most  important  fact  in  connection 
with  the  brain  is  not  its  absolute  develop- 

•21 


—  oZZ  — 

ment.     It  is  the  relation  of  this  development 
to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Duvernoy  has  made  out  a  table  showing" 
the  proportion  of  the  brain  to  the  rest  of 
the  body  in  a  number  of  animals.  Accord- 
ing to  this  table  the  Blue  Tit,  the  Cole  Tit 
and  the  Canar}^  have  a  much  stronger  claim 
to  be  man's  ancestors  than  any  Simian  race. 

Many  sanguine  scientists  have  sought  for 
the  fossil  of  the  Pithecoid  man  or  missing 
link  in  Asia,  the  cradle  of  the  human  species, 
but  none  has  ever  been  found  there.  The 
slightest  traces  have  never  been  discovered. 

Others,  with  Darwin,  have  placed  the  fos- 
sils of  this  missing  link  beneath  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  But  this  hope  has  been  absolutely 
dissipated.  The  expedition  of  the  '' Chal- 
lenger," sent  out  by  the  British  government,, 
declared  in  their  published  reports  that  no 
such  continent  as  an  Atlantis  has  ever  ex- 
isted. Mr.  John  Murray,  whose  testimony 
no  scientist  will  dispute,  says:  "He  is  a 
bold  man  who  still  argues  that  in  the  tertiary 
times  there  was  a  large  area  of  continental 
land  in  the  Pacific,  that  there  was  once  a 
Lemuria  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  or  a  conti- 
nental Atlantis  in  the  Atlantic  !  " 

At  the  same  time  that  intelligence  is  a 
bond  of  union  between  all  the  races  of  man, 
showing  that  they  are  all  of  one  family,  it 
places  an  enormous  gulf  between  the  family 


—  323  — 

of  apes  and  the  family  of  man.  Almost 
all  scientists  acknowledge  that  intelligence 
shows  an  immeasurable  and  practically  in- 
finite divergence  between  man  and  the  lower 
animals.  The  opinion  is  deeply  rooted  in 
modern  as  in  ancient  thought,  that  only  a 
distinctively  human  element  of  the  highest 
import  can  account  for  the  severance  be- 
tween man  and  the  highest  animals  below 
him.  ''  The  distinction  does  not  seem  to  be 
principally  in  the  range  and  delicac}^  of 
direct  sensation,  as  may  be  judged  from 
such  well-known  facts  as  man's  inferiority 
to  the  eagle  in  sight,  or  to  the  dog  in  scent. 
At  the  same  time,  it  seems  that  the  human 
sensory  organs  may  have  in  various  respects 
acuteness  be3^ond  those  of  other  creatures. 
But,  be\^ond  a  doubt,  man  possesses,  and  in 
some  wa\'  possesses  by  virtue  of  his  superior 
brain,  a  power  of  co-ordinating  the  impres- 
sions of  his  senses,  which  enables  him  to 
understand  the  world  he  lives  in,  and  by 
understanding,  to  use,  resist,  and  even  in  a 
measure  rule  it.  No  human  art  shows  the 
nature  of  this  human  attribute  more  clearly 
than  does  language.  Man  shares  with 
the  mammalia  and  birds  the  direct  expres- 
sion of  the  feelings  by  emxotional  tones  and 
interjectional  cries;  the  parrot's  power  of 
articulate  utterance  almost  equals  his  own ; 
and,  by  association  of  ideas  in  some  measure, 


—  324  — 

some  of  the  lower  animals  have  even  learnt 
to  recognize  words  he  utters.  But,  to  use 
words  in  themselves  unmeaning,  as  symbols 
by  which  to  conduct  and  convey  the  com- 
plex intellectual  processes  in  which  mental 
conceptions  are  suggested,  compared,  com- 
bined, and  even  analyzed,  and  new  ones 
created — this  is  a  faculty  which  is  scarcely 
to  be  traced  in  any  lower  animal."  (E.  B. 
Tylor.) 

But  what  particularly  isolate  man  from 
animals  are  moral  and  religious  phenomena. 
These  belong  essentially  to  the  human  king- 
dom ;  they  are  the  special  attributes  of  the 
human  species.  There  is  no  human  society 
in  which  the  idea  of  good  and  evil  is  not 
represented  by  certain  acts  regarded  by  the 
members  of  that  societ}^  as  morally  good  or 
morally  bad. 

Wallace,  from  his  experience  among  the 
Kurubars  and  Santals,  has  found  that  these 
tribes  have  a  consciousness  of  moral  good 
and  truth  anterior  to  experience,  and  inde- 
pendent of  questions  of  utility. 

The  peoples  of  every  nation,  however  low 
or  savage,  have  a  moral  sense.  Conscien- 
tious travellers  tell  us  that  the  most  inferior 
races  have  honesty,  respect  for  human  life, 
and  self-respect. 

The  right  of  tribal  property  known  as  the 
hunting-grounds  is   respected  by  the  Red- 


—  825  — 

skins,  the  peoples  of  New  Holland,  among 
the  lowest  in  the  human  scale,  and  b}'  the 
Australians.  The  peoples  of  one  tribe  will 
not  enter  the  hunting-grounds  of  a  neigh- 
boring tribe  without  express  permission. 
Among  the  most  savage  peoples  theft  is 
regarded  as  something  wrong  and  is  pun- 
ished. Among  savage  peoples,  however,  it 
is  not  reofarded  as  a  theft  to  rob  an  enemv 
or  a  stranger.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  con- 
sidered a  meritorious  act.  Savage  peoples 
have  a  great  respect  for  property  rights 
among  themselves  and  the  thief  is  punished 
as  severely  on  the  Guiana  coast  as  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Australian,  uncorrupted  by  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  White,  kills  the  one  who  has  de- 
stroyed the  purity  of  his  wife,  and  with  the 
Hottentots,  death  is  also  the  punishment  for 
adultery. 

Respect  for  human  life  is  universal  among 
the  races  of  man,  and  the  murderer  is  ever}^- 
where  punished.  This  formula  is  supposed 
to  be  more  elastic  with  the  Savage  than  the 
White,  and  still  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no 
human  race  has  so  terriblv  sinned  aq^ainst 
respect  for  human  life  as  the  White  race. 

A  love  of  honor  is  especially  characteristic 
Qf  savage  races,  and  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  see  savages  prefer  death  and 
even  torture  to  shame. 


—  326  — 

Modesty  and  politeness,  marks  of  self- 
respect,  are  shown  by  savages,  but  in  a  wa}^ 
different  from  our  own.  We  uncover  our 
head  before  a  superior,  the  Turk  remains 
covered  and  the  Polynesian  sits  down. 

All  human  groups  are  not  upon  the  same 
moral  level,  but  every  group  has  the  moral 
faculty  more  or  less  developed.  The  uni- 
versality of  religion  among  mankind  is  now 
all  but  admitted ;  all  the  groups  of  man  are 
religious. 

All  the  peoples  of  the  globe  profess  a 
belief  in  beings  superior  to  themselves  and 
capable  of  exercising  a  good  or  evil  influence 
upon  man's  destiny ;  and  the  conviction  that 
man's  existence  is  not  limited  to  the  present 
life,  but  that  there  remains  for  him  a  future 
beyond  the  grave. 

Travelers,  through  mistake,  want  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  of  the  people,  or  pre- 
conceived opinions,  have  from  time  to  time 
reported  that  groups  of  mankind  were 
atheistic  and  without  religious  belief,  but 
this,  by  reason  of  superior  knowledge,  has 
all  been  corrected.  Thus,  D'Orbigny  sa3'S  of 
the  races  of  South  America:  "Although 
several  authors  have  denied  all  religion  to 
certain  Americans,  it  is  evident  in  our  opin- 
ion that  all  the  nations,  even  the  most  bar- 
barous, possessed  one  of  some  kind." 

De  Mofras  tells  us  that  the  Californians 


—  327- 

believed  in  a  superior  God  and  that :  "This 
God  has  had  neither  father  nor  mother. 
His  origin  is  entirely  unknown  ;  they  believe 
that  He  is  omnipresent ;  that  He  sees  every- 
thing, even  in  the  middle  of  the  darkest 
nights ;  that  He  is  invisible  to  all  eyes ; 
that  He  is  the  friend  of  the  good,  and  that 
He  punishes  the  wicked." 

According  to  the  testimou}^  of  Major 
Michael  S3anes  and  Mr.  Da}^,  the  jMincopies, 
one  of  the  lowest  tribes  in  the  social  scale, 
worship  the  sun  as  the  principal  god  and 
the  moon  as  a  secondary  god ;  and  the  genii 
of  the  woods,  rivers,  and  mountains  as 
agents  of  the  first  divinities. 

Kolben  testifies  that  the  Hottentots  be- 
lieve in  a  God,  the  creator  of  all  things, 
whom  they  style  the  God  of  Gods.  They 
regard  the  moon  as  an  inferior  deit}'.  They 
believe  in  another  life  and  dedicate  to  the 
ghosts  of  their  great  men  fields,  mountains 
and  rivers. 

The  Bachapine  KafErs  believe  in  a  supe- 
rior but  malevolent  being,  whom  the}^  call 
Mouliimo.  The  Basutos  admit  the  existence 
of  a  being  who  destro^^s  b}^  thunder,  and 
believe  in  another  life  to  be  lived  in  the 
center  of  the  earth. 

The  Australians,  the  Tahitians,  the  Ne- 
groes of  Guinea  and  the  peoples  of  Dahomey 
all  have  their  native  religions. 


—  328  — 

Nowhere  on  the  earth  is  found  a  great 
human  race,  or  a  large  portion  of  it,  profess- 
ing atheism.  The  religious  faculty  is  com- 
mon to  all  human  beings;  it  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  characters  of  the  human  spe- 
cies ;  it  gives  a  specific  kinship  to  all  human 
races  and  utterly  divides  them  from  any 
Simian  origin. 

Thus  the  truest  results  of  Biology  and 
Anthropology,  instead  of  contradicting,  con- 
firm the  Mosaic  record.  God  called  man 
into  being  by  a  special  creative  act.  The 
whole  human  family  belongs  to  the  one 
same  species,  and  man's  Simian  descent 
must  be  abandoned. 


Chapter  XX. 

RESULTS  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY.  (Con.) 
( Origin  of  Races.) 

The  best  science,  then,  may  be  said  to 
have  established  the  fact  that  there  is  but 
one  human  species  branching  out  into  a 
great  variety  of  races ;  and  that  all  the  races 
of  men  are  specifically  identical  in  anatom- 
ical and  physiological  qualities ;  and  in  par- 
ticular in  intellectual  and  moral  attributes. 

The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  that 
the  various  human  races,  having  one  and  the 


—  329  — 

same  origin  and  springing  from  a  single 
primitive  pair,  have  received  their  differen- 
tiations from  the  mnltiple  conditions  of  life. 
Thns  the  very  best  and  trnest  science  une- 
qnivocably  confirms  the  Mosaic  acconnt  of 
the  descent  of  man.  Acclimatization  and 
natnralization  have  successively  determined 
and  fixed  the  different  races  as  mankind 
established  themselves  in  the  different  coun- 
tries of  the  globe. 

Anthropologically  speaking,  it  m^ay  be 
said  to  be  a  very  difficult,  if  not,  indeed,  an 
insoluble  problem  to  determine  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  the  center  of  appear- 
ance of  the  human  species.  The  solution 
at  best  can  be  but  approximative. 

Quatrefages  places  the  human  cradle  in 
that  region  of  Asia  bounded  on  the  South 
and  South-west  by  the  Himalayas,  on  the 
West  by  the  Bolor  mountains,  on  the  North- 
west by  the  Ala-Tau,  on  the  North  b}^  the 
Altai  range  and  its  off-shoots,  on  the  East 
by  the  Kingkhan,  on  the  South  and  South- 
east by  the  Felina  and  Kuen-Loun. 

No  other  portion  of  the  earth  presents  a 
like  union  of  extreme  human  types  distrib- 
uted around  a  common  center.  The  three 
great  fundamental  types  of  all  the  human 
races  are  represented  in  the  peoples  grouped 
round  this  region.     The  Black,  the  Yellow 


—  330  — 

and  tlie    White  races    all    flourish  here  to- 
gether to-da}^  side  by  side. 

The  three  great  fundamental  forms  of 
human  language  are  found  in  this  same 
region.  The  monosyllabic  languages  are 
represented  in  the  Central  and  South-East 
portion  of  this  territory,  the  agglutinative 
languages  in  the  North-East  and  North- 
West,  and  the  Inflectional  languages  in  the 
South  and  South-West. 

Again,  naturalists,  and  particularly  Geoff- 
roy  and  De  la  Malle,  claim  that  from  Asia 
the  earliest  domesticated  animals  are  derived. 

This  great  Asiatic  enclosure  would  then 
appear  to  be  the  first  home  of  the  human 
family. 

Thus  far  anthropology  has  taught  us  that 
there  is  but  one  species  of  man,  and  that 
the  many  human  groups  are  races.  The 
human  species  are  localized  originally  in  a 
very  limited  space.  Human  beings  are  now 
found  the  world  over  and  it  may  be  easily 
shown  that  this  peopling  of  the  globe  is  the 
consequence  of  migrations. 

The  histor}^,  traditions  and  legends  of 
both  the  new  and  the  old  world  show  Migra- 
tions to  be  universal  among  men.  Palaeon- 
tology and  archaeology  add  their  testimony 
to  the  wandering  instincts  of  man. 

The  continued  immobility  of  a  single 
human  race  is  contrary  to  all  analogy. 


—  331  — 

As  far  as  land  barriers  are  concerned,  none 
of  tliem  have  been  entirely  insurmountable 
to  man's  passage.  Man  has  always  been 
able  to  vanquish  ferocious  animals,  to  climb 
the  highest  and  most  precipitous  mountains, 
to  traverse  deserts  and  cross  rivers. 

Man  alone  has  been  able  to  dispute  effect- 
ively the  onward  march  of  man.  Where 
man  did  not  exist  there  was  no  insurmount- 
able barrier,  and  even  when  a  country  had 
been  inhabited,  a  superior  invading  force 
could  not  be  stopped. 

Neither  do  the  oceans  with  their  adverse 
winds  and  currents  form  an  altogether  im- 
passable barrier  to  human  migrations.  Poly- 
nesia, on  account  of  its  ocean  barriers,  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  least  accessible  places 
possible  to  human  migration.  Yet  from 
the  testimou}^  of  creditable  navigators  it 
novv^  seems  to  be  admitted  as  an  established 
fact  that  a  maritime  people  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  Mala}^  Archipelago  could 
have  easily  sailed  as  far  as  New  Guinea. 
From  New  Guinea  any  fairly  bold  navigator 
could  have  reached  the  Fiji  Islands,  and 
from  here  Pol3^nesia  was  easity  accessible. 

Autochthonists  object  to  this,  however, 
the  universality  and  absolute  constancy  of 
the  trade  winds  in  these  regions,  which 
w^ould  prevent  the  passage  of  these  seas  by 


—  332  — 

any  navigator  however  bold,  depending  upon 
the  crude  methods  of  ancient  science. 

We  have,  however,  the  testimony  of  Maury 
and  Kerhallet  that  there  are  at  seasons  va- 
riable winds  extending  over  an  area  of 
twent\^  degrees  of  this  region.  It  is  now 
known  also  that  the  monsoon  drives  back 
yearly  the  trade  winds  and  blows  beyond  the 
Sandwich  and  Tahiti  Islands. 

Thus  everything  for  a  part  of  the  year 
would  favor  navigation  eastwardly.  More- 
over there  runs  from  east  to  west  in  the 
Pacific  the  great  equatorial  current.  This 
current  is  found  to  consist  in  realit}^  of  two 
distinct  oceanic  streams,  one  of  vvhich,  to 
sustain  the  equilibrium,  runs  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  the  other.  The  one  running 
eastwardly  skirts  the  northern  portion  of 
Polynesia. 

The  Pacific  as  well  as  other  oceans,  has 
its  typhoons  and  tempests  blowing  in  all 
directions.  This  ocean  is  full  of  islands 
w^hich  must  have  often  been  reached  and 
made  the  home  of  shipwrecked  sailors. 

Ever^^thing  seems  to  point  to  the  theory 
that  Polynesia  was  peopled  by  Mala3^s  mi- 
grating from  west  to  east.  All  travelers 
agree  that  the  Polynesians  belong  to  the 
same  race  as  the  Mala3^s  and  speak  the  same 
language  with  slight  variations  of  dialect. 


—  333  — 

Polynesia  has  an  area  of  greater  extent  than 
the  whole  of  Asia. 

With  regard  to  the  peopling  of  America 
by  migrations  from  other  continents,  there 
is  very  little  geographical  difficulty.  The 
Asiatic  races  conld  have  passed  into  North 
America  across  Behring  Straits  without 
much  trouble.  The  narrowaiess  of  the  chan- 
nel between  the  continents  and  the  presence 
there  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Islands  would 
greatly  facilitate  the  passage  between  the 
main  lands. 

Again,  the  Kouro-Sivo  or  Black-strearn  of 
the  Japanese  washes  the  shores  of  California 
and  must  have  been  a  fertile  route  for  navi- 
gators between  Asia  and  America. 

Similarly  the  Equatorial  current  of  the 
Atlantic  furnished  an  easy  route  between 
America  and  x\frica. 

Lyell  well  says:  "Supposing  the  human 
genus  were  to  disappear  entirety,  with  the 
exception  of  a  single  family,  placed  either 
upon  the  Ocean  of  the  New  Continent,  in 
Australia,  or  upon  some  coral  island  of  tlie 
Pacific  Ocean,  we  may  be  sure  that  its  de- 
scendants would,  in  the  course  of  ages,  suc- 
ceed in  invading  the  whole  earth,  although 
they  might  not  have  attained  a  higher 
degree  of  civilization  than  the  Esquimaux 
or  the  South  Sea  Islanders." 

The    human    species    is  now   universally 


"  o 


''Si  — 


distributed  over  the  globe.  It  must  have 
had  the  power  of  becoming  acclimatized 
and  naturalized  in  ever}^  place  in  which  we 
meet  with  it.  Frenchmen  can  live  and  thrive 
in  Corsica,  if  they  avoid  the  marshes  which 
are  fatal  to  Corsicans  themselves.  The 
descendants  of  English  and  French  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  are  not  inferior 
to  the  first  colonists  of  Europe  in  America. 

Actual  statistics  show  that  the  increase  of 
French  populations  in  America  is  in  a 
greater  ratio  than  that  of  the  most  favored 
European  populations.  French  emigrants 
in  the  vicinit}^  of  the  Cape,  the  Boers,  de- 
scendants of  the  Dutch,  in  the  Transvaal, 
the  English  in  Australia,  Europeans  in 
Polynesia  and  the  Irish  all  over  the  world 
have  flourished  and  greatly  multiplied. 

It  is  a  demonstrated  fact  that  the  great 
Aryan  race,  originating  most  probably  in  the 
mountain  district  of  Bolor  and  Hindoo  Koh, 
had  the  faculty  of  acclimatization  under  the 
most  adverse  conditions  of  existence.  Its 
waves  of  migration  have  been  traced  from 
its  centre  of  appearance  to  Ceylon  on  the 
one  hand  and  Iceland  on  the  other.  Finally 
it  gradually  distributed  its  colonies  over  the 
whole  world.  What  is  true  in  this  respect 
of  the  Aryan  race  is  also  true  of  the  Negro 
and  Yellow  races.  In  every  region  of  the 
globe  the  Black  lives  side  by  side  with  the 


—  335  — 

White,  and  Coolies  are  found  in  America, 
Africa  and  Europe.  Gipsies  have  overrun 
the  whole  of  Europe,  and  the  Jews  are  well 
known  to  be  cosmopolitan. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  an}-  race  can  become 
immediately  acclimatized  in  any  given  local- 
ty.  Frequentl}^  acclimatization  follows  only 
after  great  lapse  of  time  and  great  losses  of 
individuals.  And  there  are  places  where  no 
races  can  live,  such  as' in  the  estuar}-  of  the 
Gaboon,  the  Alaremma,  and  the  marshes  of 
Corsica.  As  Quatrefages  well  remarks : 
"The  conditions  of  acclimatization  vary 
with  the  race ;  that  the  same  climate  cannot 
exercise  the  same  kind  of  action  upon  differ- 
ent races,  and  that  complete  acclimatization, 
that  is  to  say,  naturalization^  can  onh-  follow 
upon  the  harmony  of  these  two  terms — race 
and  conditions  of  life."  (The  Human  Spe- 
cies, page  223.) 

Many  den^^  the  possibility  of  the  aQcli- 
matization  of  human  races,  claiming  that 
people  simply  become  accustomed  to  a  given 
place.  Now  man  in  common  with  all  or- 
ganized beings  is  subject  to  all  the  general 
laws  which  govern  organized  life  in  animals 
and  plants.  It  can  be  easily  shown  that  in 
animals  and  plants  the  phenomena  of  accli- 
matization is  quite  common  ;  that  the  organ- 
ization   is  sometimes  modified  in  its  most 


OOP 

intimate  relations,  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
exigencies  of  inflexible  conditions  of  life. 

The  Chrysanthemnm,  which  is  now  accli- 
matized in  this  country  and  Europe,  came 
originally  from  China.  It  required  60  years 
of  cultivation  to  acclimatize  this  flower  in 
France  alone. 

The  Egyptian  goose  was  brought  to 
France  by  GeofFroy  Saint-Hilaire  in  1801. 
This  species  of  fowl  lays  in  December  in 
its  native  country.  For  several  years  the 
fowl  imported  into  France  continued  to  lay 
in  December  and  reared  its  brood  in  winter. 
In  1844  the  birds  laid  in  Februar}^,  in  1845 
in  March,  and  in  1846  in  April,  the  period 
at  which  the  common  goose  la^^s. 

Nearly  all  the  domestic  races  of  animals 
found  in  Europe,  have  been  imported  into 
America  and  are  prospering  here. 

Acclimatization,  or  physiological  adapta- 
tion to  new  conditions  of  life,  is  an  incon- 
testable fact.  In  its  accomplishment  there 
will  be  sacrifices  proportionate  to  the  differ- 
ences, as  regards  conditions  of  existence, 
between  the  two  countries,  and  the  loss  of 
individuals  and  even  of  generations. 

The  French  have  become  acclimatized  in 
Algeria  after  immense  sacrifices  and  the 
lapse  of  years  of  struggles.  After  still 
greater  sacrifices,  Europeans  have  become 
acclimatized  in  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe. 


—  337  — 

The  Negro  race  after  great  struggles  has 
become  acclimatized  in  the  English  Antilles 
and  in  Brazil. 

The  constant  migrations  of  mankind, 
assisted  by  crossings  and  the  actions  of 
climates,  have  effaced  the  primitive  type  of 
the  human  species. 

We  know  that  atavism  in  the  animal 
kingdom  has  often  caused  the  reappearance 
of  ancestral  characters.  It  is  thought  b}^ 
anthropologists  that  some  characteristics  of 
our  first  ancestors  ought  to  appear  off  and  on 
through  the  effect  of  atavism  in  the  human 
races  collectively.  A  few  characteristics 
that  appear  at  intervals  in  all  the  races  of 
man  are  conjectured  to  have  belonged  to  the 
primitive  t^-pe.  Prognathism  of  the  upper 
jaw,  red  hair,  and  yellow  skin  most  probably 
were  characteristics  of  the  original  race  of 
man. 

We  now  find  mankind  divided  up  into 
many  groups  forming  distinct  races.  Let 
us  then  consider  how  these  races  have 
originated  or  sprung  from  the  primitive 
type.  And  let  us  first  see  how  the  principal 
races  are  distinguished  among  themselves. 

Color  has  alwa3'S  been  regarded  as  a  very 
distinctive  race  mark.  Dr.  Broca  has  given 
a  graduated  scale  of  race  colors,  now  con- 
sidered a  standard,  ranging  from  the  fairest 

22 


—  338  — 

hue  of  the  Swede  to  the  brown-black  of  the 
West  African. 

The  kind  of  hair  is  another  race  character. 
The  straight  hair  of  the  American  and  Ma- 
lay; the  wavy  hair  of  the  European  and 
kinky  or  frizzed  hair  of  the  Negro  are  now 
known  to  be  due  to  difference  in  the  struct- 
ure of  the  hair.  The  microscope  shows 
straight  hair  to  have  circular  sections,  and 
wavy  and  kinky  hair  to  have  more  or  less 
symmetrically  elliptical  or  oval  sections. 

Stature  is  also  a  mark  of  race  from  the 
tall  Patagonian  to  the  dwarfish  Fuegian. 

The  structure  of  the  skull  is  another  im- 
portant race  peculiarity.  Skulls  are  classed : 
dolichocephalic  or  long,  brachycephalic  or 
broad,  and  mecocephalic  or  intermediate. 
Viewing  the  skull  from  above  and  assuming 
the  diameter  from  front  to  back  as  loo,  if 
the  cross  diameter  from  side  to  side  falls 
below  80,  the  skull  is  classed  as  long ;  if  on 
the  contrary  it  exceeds  80,  the  skull  is 
classed  as  broad  ;  while  skulls  with  a  pro- 
portionate breadth  of  75  to  80  are  known  as 
intermediate.  This  percentage  of  the  skulPs 
breadth  to  its  length  is  called  the  cephalic 
index. 

The  position  of  the  jaws  is  also  regarded 
as  typical  of  race.  A  race  is  said  to  be 
prognathous    when    the  jaws   project  con- 


—  339  — 

siderably,  and  orthognathous  when  the  pro- 
jection is  slight,  as  in  the  European. 

The  celebrated  ^'  facial  angle"  of  Camper 
depends  on  this  distinction. 

The  capacity  of  the  cranium  is  also  taken 
as  a  test  of  race. 

The  contour  of  the  face  and  the  general 
cast  of  features  are  looked  upon,  at  least 
popularly,  and  correctly  too,  as  typical  char- 
acteristics of  race.  The  snub  nose  of  the 
Kerghis,  the  broad  ear  of  the  Kalmuk,  the 
pointed  chin  of  the  Arab  and  the  almond 
eye  of  the  Chinaman  are  well  recognized 
marks  of  race. 

But  these  race  distinctions  are  not  fixed 
and  permanent,  partly  because  of  the  mix- 
ture and  crossing  of  races  and  partly  because 
of  independent  variation  of  types,  or  as 
Blumenbach  remarks  :  ''  That  innumerable 
varieties  of  mankind  run  into  one  another 
by  insensible  degrees."  It  would  be  then 
a  hopeless  task  to  attempt  to  arrange  the 
whole  human  species  within  exactly  bounded 
divisions.  There  are,  however,  several  defi- 
nite t^^pes  of  mankind  that  ma}'  be  taken  as 
standard  types.  There  are  several  plans  of 
defining  such  types.  Ouetelet's  method  is 
that  of  selecting  as  the  standard  the  most 
numerous  group,  on  both  sides  of  which  the 
groups  decrease  in  number  as  they  vary  in 
type.     It  is  possible  in  this  way  by  inspec- 


—  340  — 

tion  of  considerable  numbers  of  individuals 
to  define  the  prevalent  type  of  a  race  with 
tolerable  approximation  to  the  real  mean  or 
standard  man  of  the  race. 

Blumenbach  reckons  five  races  or  standard 
divisions :  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Ethio- 
pian, American  and  Malay.  Cuvier  has 
reduced  the  divisions  to  three :  Caucasian, 
Mongol  and  Negro. 

Professor  Huxley  divides  the  species  into 
five  types  :  The  Australioid,  Negroid,  Mon- 
goloid, Xanthochroic  and  Melanochroic. 

The  Australioids  have  chocolate  skin, 
black  wavy  hair,  dolichocephalic  skull  and 
projecting  jaw.  The  Negroid  has  brown- 
black  skin,  black  woolly  hair,  dolichocephalic 
skull  and  projecting  jaw.  The  Mongoloids 
have  yellowish  brown  skin,  black  straight 
hair,  brachycephalic  skull  and  oblique  eyes. 
The  Xanthochrois  have  colorless  skin,  from 
straw  to  chestnut  colored  hair  and  skull 
var^dng  in  proportions.  Melanochrois  have 
olive  skin,  black  hair,  skull  of  varying  pro- 
portions, light  frame  and  low  stature. 

The  circumstances  under  which  varieties 
and  races  among  the  lower  animals  and 
plants  originated  are  well-known.  The  oc- 
currence of  a  number  of  phenomena  in  man 
similar  to  those  exhibited  by  the  inferior 
kingdoms  and  forming  distinct  varieties 
of  the  same    species  has   been  established. 


—  341  — 

Judging  by  analogy,  we  have  clearly  the 
right  to  infer  that  what  was  sufficient  to 
occasion  a  variety  among  the  lower  animal 
species  should  also  be  sufficient  to  produce 
a  variety  or  race  in  the  human  family. 

There  seem  to  be  two  forces  acting  on  the 
human  species  as  on  all  organic  species,  one 
force  constantly  tending  to  maintain  the 
types,  which  is  known  as  heredity^  and  the 
other  force  tending  to  diversify  the  typical 
characters,  which  may  be  called  the  con- 
ditions of  life. 

By  reason  of  the  force  of  heredit}^,  the 
father  and  mother  tend  equall}^  to  transmit 
their  own  character  to  their  offspring. 
However  similar  parents  may  seem  to  be 
there  is  certainly  always  some  difference 
between  them  and  the  nature  of  the  offspring 
will  of  necessity  be  a  compromise  between 
two  characters.  The  traits  common  to  both 
parents  will  be  exaggerated  in  the  offspring, 
and  the  different  characters  will  produce  a 
resultant  distinct  from  the  two  components. 
Thus  in  a  measure  heredit}^  itself  is  directly 
the  cause  of  variation.  And  this  force  of 
heredity  in  producing  varieties  is  greatl}^ 
aided  and  influenced  by  the  conditions  of 
life.  The  conditions  of  life  in  the  widest 
sense  embrace  all  the  conditions  under  whose 
influence  a  man,  animal  or  plant  is  formed 
and    grows    as    germ,    embryo,    3'outh    and 


—  342  — 

adult.  Among  the  conditions  of  life  affect- 
ing the  formation  of  human  races  are  in- 
cluded soil,  cold,  heat,  humidity,  dryness, 
light,  food,  drink,  plenty,  penury,  morality, 
human  crossings,  intellect,  mixture  of  be- 
liefs, customs  and  manners. 

Thus  naturalists  have  shown  that  mon- 
strosity dates  from  the  earliest  stages  of  the 
formation  of  the  being  and  indicates  frequent- 
ly the  external  causes  that  have  produced  it. 

By  the  mixing  of  madder  with  the  food 
of  a  female  mammal,  a  red  color  is  produced 
in  the  bones  of  the  foetus ;  and  by  placing 
the  eggs  of  a  salmon-trout  in  waters  which 
only  nourish  white-trout,  the  eggs  become 
gradually  paler  and  produce  trout  which 
have  lost  the  characteristic  color  of  their 
race. 

Thus  certain  conditions  of  life  strongl}^ 
affect  organism  in  the  embr3-onic  state.  But 
the  conditions  of  life  almost  equalty  influ- 
ence the  animal  when  full-grown.  Euro- 
pean sheep  when  transported  to  the  plains 
of  Meta  are  greatly  influenced  and  changed 
by  the  new  conditions  of  life.  The  fleece  is 
only  retained  when  the  sheep  are  regularl}' 
shorn.  When  left  to  themselves  the  wool 
becomes  felty,  is  detached  in  flakes  and  re- 
placed by  a  short,  stiff  and  shining  hair. 
Thus  the  same  individual  sheep  under  the 


—  o4o  — 

influence  of   this  burning  climate  becomes 
in  turn  a  woolly  and  a  hair}^  animal. 

Heredity  and  conditions  of  life  give  rise 
to  variety.  The  individual  that  has  devi- 
ated from  the  original  t3^pe  in  turn  becomes 
a  parent  and  tends  to  transmit  its  excep- 
tional characters  to  its  own  offspring. 
These  facts  are  repeated  from  offspring  to 
offspring,  and  at  each  generation  the  results 
of  the  conditions  of  life  are  added  to  each 
other.  Thus  a  small  deviation  at  first 
grows  and  grows  until  the  change  becomes 
quite  marked.  Pigs,  for  example,  which 
have  become  wald  in  the  Paramos,  have  ac- 
quired a  kind  of  wool  under  the  action  of  a 
mild  continuous  cold. 

European  oxen  gradually  lose  their  hair 
on  the  hot  plains  of  Mariquita,  and  there  is 
a  marked  contrast  between  the  Guinea  and 
Esquimaux  dog. 

In  short,  organisms  are  modified  in  order 
to  put  them  in  harmou}^  with  the  conditions 
of  life.  But  when  once  the  greatest  possible 
effect  has  been  attained  under  the  new  con- 
ditions of  life,  the  further  action  of  these 
conditions  can  but  more  fully  fix  the  result 
obtained  and  can  never  produce  a  change  in 
the  opposite  direction.  The  heat  that  has 
deprived  cattle  of  their  hair  can  never  again 
restore  it,  and  the  cold  that  has  made  pigs 
wooll}^  will  never  deprive  them  of  the  wool. 


—  344  — 

Thus  conditions  of  life  having  once  pro- 
duced a  race  will  afterwards  cause  its  per- 
manency and  stability. 

In  the  human  species  the  extreme  varia- 
tions seen  in  domesticated  animal  species 
are  never  found  because  man  in  his  own 
case  does  not  make  use  of  selection  or  culti- 
vation as  he  does  with  domestic  animals. 
The  limits  of  variation  are  then  not  as  ex- 
tensive in  man  as  in  the  domestic  animals. 

But  if  selection  were  applied  to  man 
himself  the  result  would  soon  be  evident. 
Thus  races  really  distinguished  for  their 
great  stature  were  produced  in  Prussia  and 
Alsace  by  marrying  the  tallest  women  to 
the  tallest  men. 

Although  the  conditions  of  life  do  not 
play  as  strong  a  part  in  the  human  family 
as  among  domesticated  animals,  yet  their 
action  is  none  the  less  real.  This  is  strik- 
ingly verified  in  the  great  western  colonies. 
Every  race  is  represented  by  derived  sub- 
races  which  vary  according  to  the  locality. 

North  and  South  America,  Australia  and 
the  islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  have  their 
own  peculiar  derived  races,  each  remarkabty 
characterized. 

After  twelve  generations  the  Yankee  in 
the  United  States  no  longer  resembles  his 
ancestors.  At  the  second  generation  the 
English  Creole  in  North  America,  presents 


Q 


45 


in  his  features,  an  alteration  whicli  approxi- 
mates him  to  the  native  races. 

Thus  when  subject  to  the  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life  which  have  formed  the 
local  races,  the  emigrant  races  could  not 
help  being  influenced  by  it  to  a  great  extent, 
still  they  will  never  be  confused  with  the 
local  races  or  with  each  other  any  more  than 
the  White  transported  into  Africa  would 
ever  become  a  true  Negro,  or  the  European 
descendants  of  a  Negro  ever  become  true 
Whites.  This  is  because  every  race  is  a 
resultant  whose  components  are,  partl}^  the 
species  itself,  and  partly  the  sum  of  the 
modifying  agents  which  have  produced  the 
deviation  from  the  primitive  type. 

Every  race  which  is  fixed,  when  brought 
under  the  conditions  of  life  which  have 
formed  another  race,  will  approximate  to 
the  latter ;  but  will  partly  retain  its  former 
impress. 

Human  races  or  varieties  are  formed  b}' 
heredity  and  conditions  of  life.  The  con- 
ditions of  life  act  as  the  supreme  ruler. 
Heredity,  whicli  is  essentially  a  conserving 
element,  becomes  an  agent  of  variation, 
when  it  transmits  and  accumulates  the 
modifying  actions  of  the  conditions  of  life. 

Man  having  spread  from  his  centre  of 
appearance  into  all  the  parts  of  the  globe, 
and    encountering    all   manner   of  climates 


—  346  — 

and  all  conditions  of  life,  could  not  have 
always  remained  the  same.  It  was  utterly 
impossible  that  he  should  retain  everywhere 
and  for  all  time  his  original  characters. 
The  human  family  was  divided  up  into 
races,  all  of  which  differ  from  the  first  model, 
but  all  retaining  the  essential  characters 
that  show  them  to  belong  to  the  one  only 
human  species. 


Chapter  XXI. 

ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 

It  is  frequentl}^  claimed  that  there  is  a 
contradiction  between  science  and  Genesis 
regarding  the  antiquity  of  the  human  fam- 
ily. A  thorough  sifting  of  facts  will,  how- 
ever, show  this  claim  to  be  unfounded  and 
the  contradiction  apparent  rather  than  real. 

Genesis  does  not  pretend  to  give  an}^ 
exact  figures  for  the  age  of  the  human  race, 
and  science  only  claims  to  be  able  to  offer 
a  broad  guess  at  the  time  of  man's  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  earth. 

The  Sacred  Text  merely  supplies  the 
material  for  a  system  of  Biblical  chronology, 
but  has  no  established  one  of  its  own.  Thus 
the  Sacred  Books  must  not  be  held  respon- 
sible for  the  many  systems   of  chronology 


—  347  — 

which    various    authors    have  formed  upon 
the  basis  of  data  furnished  by  them. 

All  records  agree  that  man's  first  appear- 
ance on  our  globe  compared  with  that  of 
vegetables  and  animals  is  indeed  quite 
recent. 

The  science  of  chronology  is  of  compara- 
tively recent   date.     It  was  a  task  of  very 
great  difficulty  with   the  ancients  to  deter- 
mine the  length  of  time  intervening  between 
distant  historical  events  even  when  they  had 
begun    to    use    the    astronomical    units    of 
measurement.     And    in    still    more    remote 
antiquity,  when  they  had  to  rely  for  their 
dates  on  the  enumeration  of  generations,  the 
difficulty  was  much  enhanced  and  the  result 
very  vague  and  uncertain.     The  data  afford- 
ed by  the  Bible  as  the  basis  of  a  chronolog\^ 
consist  altogether  in  the  numbering  of  gen- 
erations.    Commentators  using  this  Biblical 
material  were  thus  led  to  differ  very  widely 
with   regard   to  man's  antiquity.      Usher's 
estimate,  placing  man's  age  at  4004  B.  C. 
became  so  popular  that  it  was  looked  upon 
for  a  long  time  as  a  classic  number  similarh^ 
to  Enke's  calculation  of  ninety-five  million 
for  the  sun's  distance. 

It  is  very  well  known  that  ancient  authors 
of  all  kinds  attached  but  little  importance 
to  exactness  in  the  matter  of  dates.  They 
often  put  down  positivel}^  what  they  knew 


—  348  — 

only  by  approximation,  wishing  to  give 
round  numbers.  It  seldom  happens  that 
profane  historians  or  even  the  Scriptures 
give  the  halves  or  any  fractions  of  the  year. 
This  gives  rise  to  the  supposition  that  they 
frequently  left  years  behind  unconnected  or 
put  down  more  than  they  should,  and  so, 
in  the  matter  of  ancient  chronolog}^,  it  is 
impossible  to  arrive  at  anything  like  perfect 
precision. 

The  Bible  has  no  chronology  of  its  own 
as  already  stated,  it  only  gives  certain  data 
from  which  different  commentators  have 
formed  different  chronologies.  The  age  of 
the  human  race  is  nowhere  explicitly  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  and  even  the  data  fur- 
nished by  the  Sacred  Text  from  which  is 
computed  the  length  of  time  from  man's 
creation  to  the  Birth  of  Christ  are  somewhat 
obscure  and  uncertain. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  entire 
period  from  Adam  to  Our  Lord  is  divided 
into  two  parts  ;  from  the  creation  of  Adam 
to  the  Call  of  Abraham  ;  and  from  the  Call 
of  Abraham  to  the  Birth  of  Christ.  There  is 
very  little  dispute  about  the  second  division, 
as  almost  all  the  chronologies  substantially 
agree  in  fixing  the  latter  interval  at  2000 
years. 

Different  readings  of  the  earliest  versions 
of   the   Pentateuch,   however,    have   led    to 


-349- 

widely  dififerent  computations  regarding  the 
length  of  the  former  intervah  The  data 
for  the  computation  are  derived  from  the 
two  genealogical  lists  of  the  patriarchs  from 
Adam  to  Noe  and  from  Noe  to  Abraham. 
In  Genesis  (Vulgate)  (v.  3-32)  we  read: 
''  And  Adam  lived  a  hundred  and  thirty 
years,  and  begot  a  son  to  his  own  image 
and  likeness,  and  called  his  name  Seth. 

Seth  also  lived  a  hundred  and  five  3xars 
and  begot  Enos. 

And  Enos  lived  ninety  ^^ears,  and  begot 
Cainan. 

And  Cainan  lived  seventy  years,  and 
begot  Alalaleel. 

And  Malaleel  lived  sixty-five  years,  and 
begot  Jared. 

And  Jared  lived  a  hundred  and  sixty-two 
years,  and  begot  Henoch. 

And  Henoch  lived  sixty-five  years,  and 
begot  Mathusala. 

And  Alathusala  lived  a  hundred  and 
eight3^-seven  3^ears,  and  begot  Lamech. 

And  Lamech  lived  a  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  years,  and  begot  a  son.  And  he  called 
his  name  Noe. 

And  Noe,  when  he  was  five  hundred  years 
old,  begot  Sem,  Cham  and  Japheth. 

And  in  Genesis  (Vulgate)  (xi.  10-26) : 
''These  are  the  generations  of  Sem:    Sem 


—  350  — 

was  a  hundred  years  old  when  he  begot 
Arphaxad,  two  years  after  the  flood. 

And  Arphaxad  lived  thirty-five  years,  and 
begot  Sale. 

Sale  also  lived  thirty  years,  and  begot 
Heber. 

And  Heber  lived  thirty-four  years,  and 
begot  Phaleg. 

Phaleg  also  lived  thirty  years,  and  begot 
Reu. 

And  Reu  lived  thirty-two  years,  and  begot 
Sarug. 

And  Sarug  lived  thirt}^  years,  and  begot 
Nachor. 

And  Nachor  lived  nine  and  twenty  years, 
and  begot  Thare. 

And  Thare  lived  seventy  years,  and  begot 
Abram,  and  Nachor,  and  Aran." 

Here  we  have  the  age  of  each  individual 
member  of  the  genealogy  at  the  time  when 
the  next  in  succession  was  born.  Thus  we 
find  that  from  Adam's  creation  to  the  birth 
of  Seth  a  hundred  and  thirty  years  inter- 
vened and  from  the  birth  of  Seth  to  that  of 
Enos  a  hundred  and  five  years  and  so  on. 

Adding  seventy-five  years  to  the  time 
computed  through  these  genealogies  from 
the  creation  of  Adam  to  the  birth  of  Abra- 
ham, we  have  the  whole  time  to  Abraham's 
Call ;    because    Genesis    (xii.    4)    says  that 


—  351  — 

^^  Abraham  was  seventy   and  five  years  old 
when  he  went  forth  from  Haran." 

The  three  earliest  versions  of  the  Penta- 
teuch are  the  Hebrew,  the  Samaritan  and 
the  Septuagint,  and  each  one  of  them  widely 
differs  from  the  others  in  its  estimate  of  the 
age  of  the  human  family.  Between  the 
estimate  made  from  the  Septuagint  and  the 
Hebrew,  there  is  a  discrepancy  of  about 
1500  years. 

Many  reasons  are  given  for  the  discrep- 
ancies between  the  figures  found  in  the 
three  versions.  Some  are  supposed  to  be 
due  to  copyists  and  others  to  design.  But 
no  explanation  3^et  suggested  is  entirely 
satisfactory.  Many  copyists  had  disciples 
who  greatly  revered  them  and  so  finding 
their  notes  and  figures  in  the  margins,  when 
recopying,  placed  them  through  reverence 
in  the  body  of  the  text. 

It  is  w^ell  known  that  when  a  long  list  of 
names  and  numbers  are  copied  and  recopied 
thousands  of  times  from  age  to  age,  errors 
are  certain  to  creep  in  and  be  perpetuated. 

It  is  now  impossible  to  decide  which  of 
the  versions  has  the  best  claim  to  onr  ac- 
ceptance. Each  of  them  has  powerful  apolo- 
gists and  redoubtable  champions,  the  weight 
of  most  eminent  authority  w^ould  seem,  how- 
ever, to  favor  the  figures  of  the  Septuagint. 

The  Church  herself  pronounces  nothing 


—  352 


Upon  the  subject,  leaving  it  freely  open  to 
the  arguments  of  theologians  and  commen- 
tators,— the  precise  antiquity  of  the  human 
race  not  being  considered  a  matter  of  faith. 
These  different  computations  based  on 
the  versions  of  the  Pentateuch,  place  the 
age  of  the  human  family  between  four  and 
six  thousand  years  from  the  creation  of  man 
to  the  Birth  of  Christ.  Adding  to  this 
estimate  the  sum  of  1898  years,  the  compu- 
tation of  man's  age  according  to  Biblical 
material  would  be  between  six  and  eight 
thousand  years. 

GENEALOGICAL  TABLE  OF  GENESIS. 


Patriarchs. 

Age  of  Each  When  Son  Was 
Born  According  to 

Samaritan 
Text. 

Hebrew 
Text. 

Septuagint 
Texf. 

130 

105 

90 

70 

65 
62 

65 
67 

53 
500 

100 

130 

105 

90 

70 

65 
162 

65 
187 
182 
500 

100 

230 

Seth                  

205 

190 

{"'oinan                       ....•••••••••■• 

170 

Malaleel            

165 

162 

T~ff*nnrVi                            ..■•••••■••••• 

165 

^lathusala 

Lamech ... 

Noe 

Sem  (to  Birth  of  Arphaxad  two  years  after 
the  Delne^e  ) 

167 
188 
500 

100 

1307 

1656 

2242 

35 

35 

135 

r^Qini^n                                    .....•••••>>• 

130 

Sale                

130 

134 
130 

132 

130 

79 
70 

75 

30 
34 
30 
32 
30 
29 
70 
75 

130 

Heber       

134 

Phaleg      

130 

Reu       

132 

130 

79 

Thare        

70 

Abraham's  Call 

75 

Total  from  Creation  of  Adam  to  Abraham's 
Vocation 

1015 
2322 

365 

202I 

1145 
3387 

—  353  —  • 

St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Thomas 
were  of  the  opinion  that  no  exact  length  of 
time  for  man's  age  on  the  earth  could  be 
gathered  from  Biblical  sources. 

St.  Paul  himself  recognized  the  difficul- 
ties surrounding  scriptural  chronology  when 
he  gave  this  counsel :  "  Not  to  give  heed  to 
fables,  and  endless  genealogies,  which  fur- 
nish questions  rather  than  the  edification 
of  God." 

And  the  gravest,  most  learned  and  most 
reputable  authors  claim  that  chronological 
uncertaint}^  attaches  to  all  ancient  history 
as  well  sacred  as  profane.  Calmet,  Julius 
Africanus,  Isaac  Vossius  and  M.  Simon  were 
of  this  opinion. 

Pagi  likewise  admits  the  uncertainty  of 
chronological  accuracy,  as  do  also  IMolloy, 
Brucker  and  Bishop  iMeignan,  all  declaring 
that  some  generations  may  have  been  omit- 
ted by  the  cop^dst  and  some  by  the  sacred 
writer. 

In  Josephus,  the  years  of  the  Judges  and 
the  periods  of  servitude  that  happened  in 
their  time  are  not  continuous  and  immedi- 
ately consecutive,  having  been  interrupted 
b}^  anarchies  which  preceded  the  servitudes 
of  the  Israelites. 

The  periods  of  the  captivities  and  an- 
archies are  omitted  in  the  Sacred  Text,  being 
looked  upon  as  dead  spaces, 

•23 


—  354  — 

It  would  seem  very  certain  that  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  the  genealogies  are  not 
always  immediately  consecutive.  A  re- 
trenchment of  this  kind  occurs  in  i  Esdras 
(vii.  3)  where  six  generations  are  entirely 
omitted,  and  in  St.  Mathew  six  persons  are 
wanting  to  the  genealogy  of  Our  Lord.* 

Prichard,  in  his  ^'  Researches  into  the 
Physical  Histor}^  of  Mankind"  (vol.  v.) 
says  :  *^  It  is  obvious  that  all  these  sets  of 
dates  except  one  must  be  w^rong ;  and  we 
may  consider  it  as  almost  certain  that  the 
discrepancies  have  been  introduced  by  mis- 
take, and  that  the  original  expressions  de- 
noting numbers  were  not  understood.  This 
can  be  imagined  on  one  hypothesis,  viz : 
That  the  most  ancient  copies  of  Genesis,  or 
at  least  of  these  particular  documents,  con- 
tained in  the  several  sections,  not  the  sums 
of  years  expressed  in  words,  but  some  num- 
erical marks,  the  real  force  of  which  had 
been  lost  in  the  lapse  of  time,  and  through 
various  accidents,  and  that  attempts  were 
made  at  later  but  different  times,  and  by 
various  persons,  to  convert  the  numbers 
marked    down    by     numerical     signs    into 

w^ords It  may  be  supposed  that  the 

scribes  who  originally  translated  numerical 

"-'•There  are  also  slight  genealogical  omissions  in  the 
tables  of  Ruth,  I  and  II  Paralipomenon,  Mathew  and  Luke, 
the  Pentateuch  and  3rd  and  4th  Kings. 


ODD  — 


signs  into  numbers  expressed  by  words  in 
the  tables  of  Patriarchs,  adopted  some  erro- 
neous principle  of  interpretation,  which 
greatly  augmented  the  numbers  originally 
denoted  by  those  signs." 

Concerning  the  difficulties  of  forming  an 
exact  Chronology,  Calmet  remarks  as  fol- 
lows :  ^'  Some  nations  have  made  their  3'ears 
of  one  month,  others  of  four,  others  of  six. 
Some  have  made  one  year  of  the  summer 
and  another  of  the  winter  ;  some  have  made 
their  year  of  ten  months,  others  of  twelve. 
Historians,  and  we  may  say  the  same  of 
transcribers  and  translators,  have  often  con- 
founded all  these  3^ears,  and  without  re- 
marking the  difference  of  the  years  of  the 
nations  they  were  speaking  of  from  those 
in  usage  in  their  own  country,  they  have 
fixed  the  times  by  equivocal  marks,  and  thus 
introduced  confusion  into  chronology  and 
history." 

Lenormant  says  in  his  Ancient  History 
(page  122):  ''We  are  convinced  that  relig- 
ious truth  is  far  from  being  tied  to  questions 
of  literature  or  of  chronolog3\  Christian 
faith  no  more  reposes  upon  the  chronolog}^ 
of  Genesis,  than  upon  its  physics  and  its 
astronomy." 

And  there  are  many  eminent  orthodox 
commentators  of  this  same  opinion  of  Lenor- 
mant, that  inspiration   does  not  extend  to 


—  356  — 

matters  not  essentially  or  influentially  con- 
nected with  religious  truth,  and  so  claim 
that  some  of  these  chronological  inaccuracies 
originated  with  the  sacred  authors  them- 
selves. There  really  seems  to  be  no  means 
left  for  ascertaining  the  real  age  of  man  in 
the  world.  The  ancient  Hebrews  seemed 
to  be  of  this  same  opinion,  since  the  Script- 
ural writers  have  always  avoided  any  attempt 
to  compute  it. 

Thus  the  Old  Testament  really  contains 
no  reliable  material  upon  which  a  thorough- 
ly accurate  chronology  of  man's  age  can  be 
established.  Genealogical  lists  of  genera- 
tion after  generation  have  been  passed  by 
without  mention.  The  lapses  have  been 
detected  from  other  parts  of  the  record.  It 
may  be  fairly  supposed  that  other  omissions 
have  occurred  w^hicli  commentators  have 
been  unable  to  detect,  particularly  in  the 
earlier  and  more  meagre  portions  of  Holy 
Writ. 

These  lapses  may  have  been  very  great 
for  all  we  know  to  the  contrary.  Chronolo- 
gists  have  always  confessed  to  a  great  con- 
fusion in  the  numbers  given  in  the  Sacred 
Books.  It  would  seem  under  the  circum- 
stances that  from  Biblical  data  we  can  safely 
place  man's  age  upon  the  planet  at  from 
eight  to  ten  thousand  3' ears. 


—  357  — 
Chapter  XXII. 

ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN.     (Con.) 

Science  suggests,  rather  than  offers  a 
means  of  calculating,  a  higher  antiquity-  for 
man  than  is  allowed  by  Biblical  chronolo- 
gists.  Leaving  out  of  the  question  zealots 
and  charlatans,  reputable  scientists  claim  for 
man's  antiquity  all  the  way  from  ten  thou- 
sand to  one  hundred  thousand  vears.  Le 
Conte  in  his  Geology  (page  390)  says  :  "The 
amount  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since 
man  first  appeared  is  still  doubtful.  Some 
estimate  it  at  more  than  a  hundred  thou- 
sand years — some  only  ten  thousand." 

The  claims  of  science  for  man's  great  age 
are  founded  on  the  finding  of  suspected 
fossils  of  the  human  species  in  the  deposits 
of  the  Quaternary  Period,  particularl}^  the 
Champlain  epoch,  in  company  with  the 
bones  of  the  Rhinoceros,  the  old  Elephant, 
the  Cave  Hyena,  the  Cave  Bear  and  other 
extinct  species  of  animals ;  from  ancient 
monuments  ;  Hieroglyfics  ;  Lake-Dwellings  ; 
and  Archaeology. 

It  is  practically  acknowledged  bv  geolo- 
gists universall}^  that  there  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  of  man's  existence  previous  to  the 
Champlain  epoch.  The  Quaternary  Period 
is  divided  into  the  Glacial,  Champlain  and 


—  358  — 

Terrace  Epochs.  The  Quaternary  Period 
in  Geology  immediately  succeeds  the  Ter- 
tiary and  is  the  last  preceding  and  prepara- 
tory to  the  present  Period. 

The  whole  history  of  the  Earth  geologic- 
ally is  divided  into  five  great  eras :  The 
Eozoic,  Palaeozoic,  Mesozoic,  Cenozoic  and 
Psychozoic,  each  having  its  own  rock  sys- 
tem. 

The  Eras  are  subdivided  into  Periods  and 
the  Periods  into  Epochs. 

The  Cenozoic  era  and  Mammalian  age  is 
divided  into  two  periods — the  Tertiary  and 
Quaternary. 

Of  all  the  periods  the  Quaternary  has 
been  most  remarkable  for  the  wide-spread 
great  up  and  down  or  vertical  movements 
and  convulsions  of  the  earth's  crust  in  the 
higher  latitudes,  north  and  south.  Its 
striking  characteristic  was  great  changes  in 
climate  and  species.  Mammals  culminated 
in  this  Period,  it  was  the  great  Mammalian 
age. 

The  Glacial  Period  was  marked  by  an 
upward  movement  of  land  in  high  latitudes 
to  a  height  of  looo  or  2000  feet  above  the 
present  level,  followed  by  vigorous  cold. 

The  Champlain  epoch  was  noted  for  a 
sinking  dov/n  of  the  region  raised  in  the 
Glacial  epoch  to  a  depth  of  from  500  to  1000 
feet.     Owing  to   a  moderation  of  tempera- 


—  359  — 

ture  and  a  melting  of  ice,  it  became  a  flooded 
epoch,  when  loosened  icebergs  floated  over 
the  flooded  seas. 

The  Terrace  epoch  was  one  of  upheavals 
when  the  earth's  crust  was  raised  to  its 
present  level.  Probably  the  most  marked 
effects  of  the  land  sinking  process  during 
the  Champlain  Period  are  witnessed  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Champlain,  where  evidences 
are  found  of  the  regions  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Lake  having  been  raised  since  that 
period  from  400  to  500  feet. 

At  this  height  above  the  waters  of  the 
Lake  have  been  found  marine  shells  and  the 
skeleton  of  a  whale.  Hence  the  Lake  has 
given  its  name  to  the  Period. 

A  small  number  of  human  skeletons  have 
been  found  in  Europe,  w^hich  have  been 
claimed  by  scientists  to  belong  to  Quater- 
nary man  of  the  Champlain  Period.  All 
anthropologists  agree  that  human  remains 
have  been  found  in  surprisingly  small 
numbers. 

The  most  famous  human  skeleton  and 
one  of  the  oldest  ever  found,  is  that  of  Alen- 
tone.  It  was  discovered  by  M.  Riviere  in 
a  cave  at  Men  tone,  just  east  of  Nice,  and  is 
now  in  the  Anthropological  Gallery  of  the 
Paris  Museum.  The  skeleton  is  that  of  an 
old  man,  six  feet  high,  with  a  long  large 
head,  high  and  well  formed  forehead  and  a 


-  360  — 

quite  large  facial  (85°)  angle.  The  skeleton 
when  found  was  in  a  nearly  perfect  state, 
lying  on  its  side  in  an  easy  position  seem- 
ingly, surrounded  by  shells,  chipped  imple- 
ments, pierced  reindeer's  teeth  and  bones  of 
extinct  animals.  A  crust  of  stalagmite 
covered  the  whole  and  preserved  them  all 
perfectly. 

Another  remarkable  skeleton,  closely  re- 
sembling the  one  of  Mentone,  is  that  ob- 
tained from  the  Cave  of  Cro-Magnon,  in 
Perigord,  France.  This  skeleton  is  five 
feet  eleven  inches  in  height.  In  1867,  M. 
Emile  Martin  discovered  the  skeleton  of  a 
man,  five  feet  ten  inches  in  height,  in  gravel 
pits  opened  at  Crenelle  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Paris. 

Schmerling,  in  1833,  discovered  near 
Liege,  Belgium,  remains  of  a  smaller  and 
less  perfect  race  of  men. 

Other  portions  of  human  skeletons  were 
discovered  at  Canstadt,  Diisseldorf,  in  the 
caves  of  Furfooz  in  Belgium  and  La  Fru- 
chere.  These  men  whose  remains  have  been 
discovered  strongly  resemble  the  men  of 
the  present  day,  all  having  had  a  fair  aver- 
age human  skull  and  of  good  Caucasian 
type.  Anthropologists  generally  refer  these 
races  to  Champlain  times. 

Besides  these  skeletons  many  relics  of 
antique  races,  such  as  implements,  utensils, 


—  361  — 

ornaments  in  company  with  the  bones  of 
extinct  animals  have  been  found.  This 
subject  of  ''  Finds"  belongs  to  the  province 
of  Archseology,  and  archaeologists  have  di- 
vided human  history  into  three  ages,  the 
Stone,   Bronze  and  Iron  ages. 

They  subdivided  the  stone  age  into  the 
Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic,  the  older  and 
newer  stone  age.  The  older  stone  age  is 
placed  contemporary  with  the  Champlain 
Period. 

As  the  Finds  of  the  older  stone  are  the 
most  ancient  traces  of  man  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  consider  them  in  the  search  for  the 
probable  time  of  the  first  appearance  on 
earth  of  our  species.  The  Finds  of  the 
Palaeolithic  stone  age  are  classed  under  the 
heads  of  chipped  flints,  arrow  heads  and 
various  stone  implements  of  the  almond- 
shaped  type ;  pointed  flints  wrought  on  one 
side,  of  the  Moustier  type ;  thin  and  narrow 
tongue-shaped  flakes  or  knives,  having  one 
of  the  ends  chipped  to  a  point  and  used  as 
scrapers ;  fossil  shells  of  globular  form 
pierced  through  the  middle  and  thought  to 
have  been  used  as  ornaments. 

The  chief  places  in  which  these  articles 
have  been  discovered  are  the  caves  and 
grottoes  of  Alurignac,  Vergisson,  Sainte- 
Reine,  Arcy,  Vallieres,  La  Chaise,  Moustier, 
Ariege,  in  France;  Brixham,  Gower,  Kirk- 


—  862  — 

dale  and  Wells,  in  England ;  Cliiampo, 
Lagilio,  Palermo,  San  Giro  and  Macagnone, 
in  Italy  and  Sicily ;  Liege,  Engihoul,  Engis 
and  Nanlette,  in  Belgium. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  guard  against 
fraud  in  these  Finds.  The  natural  color  of 
these  worked  flints  belonging  to  the  earliest 
epoch  of  man's  existence  is  white  on  one 
side  and  brown  on  the  other.  These  Finds 
may  all  be  referred  back  to  the  Champlain 
Period. 

Lake  Dwellings  are  collections  of  houses 
with  low  sloping  roofs  perched  on  lofty 
piles  sunk  deeply  in  lake  bottoms  near  the 
shores,  and  connected  with  each  other  by 
bridges  of  planks.  The  houses  seem  to  be 
all  constructed  on  the  same  plan  and  consist 
of  two  apartments ;  the  split  stems  of  trees 
covered  with  mats  form  the  floor.  .  The 
houses  are  reached  from  the  shore  by  means 
of  rude  canoes.  From  the  canoes  the  ascent 
is  made  into  the  houses  by  means  of  ladders 
made  of  notched  tree  trunks. 

Villages  of  such  dwellings  are  common  in 
the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo,  in  the  estuaries  of 
the  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  in  New  Guinea, 
Lake  Mohrya,  in  Central  Africa,  in  Borneo, 
Celebes,  Caroline  Islands  and  many  other 
places. 

These    dwellings    are    a    safe    protection 


—  363  — 

against  great  inundations  and  a  sudden 
attack  of  an  enemy. 

Archaeological  researches  have  unearthed 
the  ruins  of  numbers  of  pre-historic  lake 
dwellings.  Switzerland  furnishes  the  great- 
est number  of  these  pre-historic  finds.  Rel- 
ics of  the  Lake  Dwellers  have  been  discov- 
ered in  almost  every  lake  in  Switzerland,  in 
lakes  Zurich,  Constance,  Geneva,  Bienne, 
Neufchatel,  Morat,  Moosseedorf  and  several 
others. 

Vast  quantities  of  implements  of  horn, 
bone,  stone,  bronze  and  pottery  have  been 
found  among  the  ruins,  together  with  a  few 
of  gold,  wood  and  iron.  The  bones  of  ex- 
tinct animals  have  been  discovered  mingled 
with  the  other  relics  and  in  a  very  few  cases 
portions  of  the  human  skeleton. 

Remains  of  Lake  Dwellings  under  the 
name  of  Crannoges  have  been  found  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland. 

Various  estimates  of  the  age  of  these  lake- 
dwellings  have  been  attempted  but  they  are 
so  largely  the  result  of  conjecture,  that  the\^ 
have  little  scientific  value,  if  indeed  any  at 
all.  The  oldest  lake  dwellings  are  thought 
to  be  those  of  Lake  Moosseedorf,  near  Bern, 
and  the  most  recent,  those  of  Ireland. 

The  implements  found  in  these  ruins  of 
Moosseedorf  are  ax-heads  of  stone,  a  flint 
saw  with    fir-wood  handle,   flint  flakes  and 


—  364  — 

arrow  heads ;  harpoons  of  stag's  horn,  awls, 
needles,  chisels,  fish-hooks  of  bone,  a  comb 
of  yew  wood;  roughly  made  vessels  of  pottery, 
evidently  used  in  cooking;  wheat,  barley,  lin- 
seed,— several  varieties  of  seeds  and  fruits ; 
bones  of  the  stag,  the  ox,  the  swine,  the 
sheep  and  the  goat ;  relics  of  the  beaver,  the 
fox,  the  hare,  the  dog,  the  boar,  the  horse, 
the  elk  and  the  bison. 

When  Lake  Lagore,  near  Dunshaughlin, 
Ireland,  w^as  drained  in  1839,  what  appeared 
as  an  island  was  discovered  to  be  a  crannoge 
from  which  150  cart  loads  of  bones  were 
taken.  The  bones  of  horses,  asses,  deer, 
sheep,  goats,  dogs  and  foxes,  and  numbers 
of  ornaments,  weapons,  utensils  of  wood, 
bone,  stone,  bronze  and  iron  were  mingled 
together. 

The  structure  consisted  of  oak  piles  mor- 
tised together  and  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the 
lake,  and  strengthened  with  cross  beams. 

The  ancient  annals  of  Ireland  relate  that 
this  island  was  burned  by  a  hostile  chief  in 
848  and  the  dwellings  plundered  and  pulled 
down  by  Norse  pirates  in  933. 

Ancient  monuments,  such  as  Cairns, 
Cromlechs,  Sepulchral  Mounds,  Pillars,  Obe- 
lisks, Pyramids,  Archs,  Brasses,  Tombs, 
Stufas  and  Mausoleums  are  often  pointed  to 
as  evidences  of  man's  high  antiquity.  Le 
Conte,  in  his  Geology  (page  24)  says  that : 


O  f  " 

oho 


"  On  the  flood-plain  of  the  Nile  stand  the 
oldest  monuments  of  civilization  in  the 
world."  The  statue  of  Rameses  II,  which 
has  been  covered  about  the  base  with  sedi- 
ment nine  feet  deep  he  calculates  to  be  3,000 
years  old. 

Concerning  the  length  of  time  that  elapsed 
since  the  beginning  of  the  stone  age,  there 
can  be  but  the  merest  and  most  unreliable 
conjectures.  The  three  conditions  of  man 
represented  by  the  stone,  bronze  and  iron 
ages  have  always  co-existed  side  by  side 
upon  the  earth.  There  has  always  been  the 
highest  civilization  and  the  lowest  barbar- 
ism. 

In  mau}^  countries  the  three  ages  have 
existed  together  and  in  others  they  slowl}^ 
graduated  one  into  the  other  without  the 
preceding  ones  disappearing.  In  Polynesia, 
Central  and  Southern  Africa,  America — ex- 
cept Peru  and  Mexico,  the  people  moved 
directly  from  the  Stone  to  the  Iron  age 
without  passing  through  the  Bronze. 

When  America  was  discovered,  the  native 
tribes  were  still  in  the  stone  age.  So  that 
it  would  be  the  sheerest  folly  to  undertake 
to  give  any  figures  for  man's  antiquity 
taken  from  these  ages. 

Many  contend  that  the  bones  of  extinct 
animals  found  mingled  with  the  implements 
of  the  stone  age  point  to  a  high  antiquity. 


366  -- 


The  animals  living  in  the  early  stone  age 
and  since  extinct,  were  the  hairy  mammoth, 
W00II3'  rhinoceros  and  the  hippopotamus. 
For  all  that  is  known  to  the  contrary  these 
animals  may  have  become  extinct  very 
suddenly  or  by  slow  degrees  after  long  ages. 
There  is  no  certainty  in  the  matter  and  so 
no  criterion  to  accurately  judge  by. 

The  Moa  (Dinormis)  of  New  Zealand,  the 
Dodo  and  Solitaire  of  the  Mauritius  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  the  ^pyornis  of  Madagascar, 
and  other  species  have  become  extinct  in  ver^^ 
recent  times  and  very  suddenly.  The  Ry- 
tina  of  Siberia  became  extinct  in  the  last 
century  and  the  great  Auk  of  the  North  Sea 
were  last  seen  in  1844. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  American  Buf- 
falo is  rapidly  passing  away  before  our  eyes. 

The  extermination  of  animal  species  af- 
ford then  no  data  for  reliable  figures. 

The  finding  of  human  skeletons  furnishes 
no  data  more  reliable.  In  the  first  place 
their  number  is  so  extraordinarily  small 
that  nothing  can  be  generalized  from  them. 

In  the  cataclysms  and  inundations  always 
so  frequent,  they  may  have  been  washed 
into  the  caves  wherein  they  have  been  found 
and  mingled  with  bones  of  the  older  animal 
species.  That  they  were  encrusted  with 
stalagmite,  adds  nothing,  as  this  process  is 
sometimes  slow  and  sometimes  rapid.    Thus 


367  — 


for  instance,  Lyell  thinks  that  the  famous 
skeleton  found  in  1857  i^  the  Neanderthal 
Cave,  near  Diisseldorf,  may  have  been 
washed  in. 

The  few  remains  of  ancient  human  races 
unearthed  have  been  mostlv  confined  to  a 
small  radius  in  Europe. 

The  human  finds  in  America  have  mostl}^ 
proven  hoaxes  upon  close  examination. 
The  human  footprints  found  in  a  rock  near 
vSt.  Louis  were  simply  Indian  carvings. 
The  human  skeletons  discovered  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Guadalupe  were  proven  to 
be  of  bodies  buried  but  a  few  hundred  years 
ago  and  afterwards  petrified.  The  Find  of 
Natchez  and  the  fossil  man  of  Florida  were 
the  baldest  impositions.  The  Table  Moun- 
tain and  Calaveras  skulls  made  a  great  stir 
among  antiquarians  for  a  short  time.  Pro- 
fessor Whitney,  as  late  as  1879,  claimed  the 
Calaveras  county  cranium  to  be  a  genuine 
relic  of  Quaternary  man. 

But  the  miner  that  perpetrated  the  joke 
at  last  confessed.  A  miner  named  Mattison 
produced  the  Calaveras  skull  in  1866  ;  dug 
it  out,  he  said,  in  his  mine,  130  feet  below 
the  surface,  from  beneath  the  lava  which 
had  flowed  from  a  volcano  in  the  pliocene 
period. 

The  lava  where  the  skull  was  ostensibly 
found  had  flowed  out  over  that  country  eons 


—  368  — 

before  the  basaltic  cap-covered  Table  Moun- 
tain itself  had  existed.  The  skull  was 
coated  with  a  deposit  of  gravel  and  sand 
that  told  of  its  lying  at  one  time  in  a  river- 
bed. The  skull  was  broken  in  the  strongest 
part,  an  evidence  of  the  strength  of  the 
mighty  torrent  that  had  dashed  it  against 
the  bowlders. 

A  bored  shell  was  found  near  by,  sup- 
posably  used  as  an  ornament.  At  some  time 
during  the  skull's  wanderings,  in  the  river's 
bed,  or  resting  on  its  bank,  a  snail  had 
crawled  under  the  malar  bone  and  died 
there.  They  found  its  shell  there,  and  no 
such  snail  has  lived  since  the  volcanoes 
ceased  pouring  lava  over  California. 

The  humor  occasioned  by  these  finds  in 
mining  districts  is  well  expressed  by  Bret 
Harte  in  the  following  little  poem  : 

THE  SOCIETY  UPON  THE  STANISLAUS. 

I  reside  at  Table  Mountain,  and  my  name  is  Truthful  James; 
I  am  not  up  to  small  deceit,  or  any  sinful  games; 
And  I'll  tell  in  simple  language  what  I  know  about  the  row 
That  broke  up  our  society  upon  the  Stanislaus. 

But  first  I  would  remark,  that  it  is  not  a  proper  plan 
For  any  scientific  gent  to  whale  his  fellow  man  ; 
And,  if  a  member  don't  agree  with  his  peculiar  whim. 
To  lay  for  that  same  member  for  to   "  put  a  head  "  on  him. 

Now  nothing  could  be  finer  or  more  beautiful  to  see, 
Than  the  first  six  months'  proceedings  of  that  same  society, 
Till  Brown  of  Calaveras  brought  a  lot  of  fossil  l^ones 
That  he  found  within  a  tunnel  near  the  tenement  of  Jones. 

Then  Brown  he  read  a  paper  and  he  reconstructed  there. 
From  those  same  bones,  an  animal  that  was  extremely  rare ; 


—  369  — 

And  Jones  then  asked  the  Chair  for  a  suspension  of  the  rules, 
Till  he  could   prove  that  those  same  bones  was  one  of  his  lost 
mules. 

Then  Brown  he  smiled  a  bitter  smile,  and  said  he  was  at  fault, 
It  seemed  he  had  been  trespassing  on  Jones'  family  vault; 
He  was  a  most  sarcastic  man,  this  quiet  Mr.  Brown, 
And  on  several  occasions  he  had  cleaned  out  the  town. 

Now  I  hold  it  is  not  decent  for  a  scientific  gent 
To  say  another  is  an  ass, — at  least  to  all  intent; 
Nor  should  the  individual  who  happens  to  be  meant 
Reply  by  heaving  rocks  at  him  to  any  great  extent. 

Then  Abner  Dean  of  Angel's  raised  a  point  of  order — when 
A  chunk  of  old  red  sand  stone  took  him  in  the  abdomen, 
And  he  smiled  a  kind  of  sickly  smile,  and  curled  up  on  the  floor. 
And  the  subsequent  proceedings  interested  him  no  more. 

For,  in  less  time  than  I  write  it,  every  member  did  engage 
In  a  warfare  with  the  remnants  of  a  palaeozoic  age; 
And  the  way  they  heaved  those  fossils  in  their  anger  was  a  sin. 
Till  the  skull  of  an  old  mammoth  caved  the  head  of  Thompson 
in. 

And  this  is  all  I  have  to  say  of  these  improper  games. 
For  I  live  at  Table  Mountain,  and  my  name  is  Truthful  James; 
And  I've  told  in  simple  language  what  I  know  about  the  row 
That  broke  up  our  Society  upon  the  Stanislaus. 

One  remarkable  feature  connected  with 
the  Finds  everywhere  is  that  the  skeletons 
of  the  supposed  pre-historic  man  show  him 
to  be  of  as  perfect  races  as  those  of  to-day. 
On  this  subject  x\merica's  greatest  geolo- 
gist, Dana,  says  :  ''In  the  case  of  Man,  the 
abruptness  of  transition  is  still  more  extra- 
ordinary, and  especially  because  it  occurs 
so  near  to  the  present  time.  In  the  highest 
Man-ape,  the  nearest  allied  of  living  species 
has  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  but  thirty- 
four  cubic  inches ;  v/hile  the  skeleton 
throughout  is  not  fitted  for  an  erect  posi- 

24 


•-  370  — 

tion,  and  the  fore-limbs  are  essential  to 
locomotion:  but,  in  the  lowest  of  existing 
men,  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  is  sixty- 
eight  cubic  inches,  ever}^  bone  is  made  and 
adjusted  for  the  erect  position,  and  the  fore- 
limbs,  instead  of  being  required  in  locomo- 
tion, are  wholly  taken  from  the  ground,  and 
have  other  higher  uses.  Forty  years  since, 
Schmerling  found  fossil  bones  of  ancient 
Man  in  Europe ;  and  for  the  past  fifteen 
years  active  search  has  gone  forward  for  the 
missing  links ;  and  still  the  lowest  yet 
found, — and  this  probably  not  the  oldest, — 
has  a  cranium  of  seventy-five  cubic  inches 
capacity.  Some  of  the  oldest  yet  discovered 
have  a  large  cranium  and  a  high  facial 
angle,  although  rude  in  implements  and 
mode  of  life.  No  remains  bear  evidence  to 
less  perfect  erectness  of  structure  than  in 
civilized  man,  or  to  any  nearer  approach  to 
the  Man-ape  in  essential  characteristics. 

The  existing  Man-apes  belong  to  lines 
that  reached  up  to  them  as  their  ultimatum ; 
but,  of  that  line  which  is  supposed  to  have 
reached  upward  to  Man,  not  the  first  link 
below  the  lowest  level  of  existing  Man  has 
yet  been  found.  This  is  the  more  extra- 
ordinary, in  view  of  the  fact  that,  from  the 
lowest  limit  in  existing  men,  there  are  all 
possible  gradations  up  to  the  highest ;  while, 
below  that  limit,  there  is  an  abrupt  fall  to 


0-7 


Ti- 
the ape  level,  in  which  the  cubic  capacity  of 
the  brain  is  one  half  less.  If  the  links  ever 
existed,  their  annihilation  without  a  relic 
is  so  extremel}^  improbable  that  it  may  be 
pronounced  impossible.  Until  some  are 
found,  Science  cannot  assert  that  they  ever 
existed."     (Geology,  page  603.) 


Chapter  XXIII. 

THE  DELUGE. 

There  is  scarcely  any  considerable  race  of 
men  among  whom  there  does  not  exist,  in 
some  form,  the  tradition  of  a  great  deluge, 
which  destroyed  all  the  human  family  except 
a  favored  few  of  their  own  progenitors. 

Humboldt,  the  great  traveler  and  natural- 
ist, found  this  tradition  general  and  still 
fresh  among  the  tribes  of  the  Orinoco. 
Herrera,  the  Spanish  historian,  relates  that 
it  is  common  among  the  Brazilians,  the 
Peruvians,  the  T^Iechoachans  and  Cubans. 

The  inhabitants  of  Tahiti,  the  Indians 
of  Terra  Firma  and  of  the  North  American 
lakes  held  this  tradition  distinctly.  The 
sacred  records  of  the  Parsees  (doubtful),  the 
Mohammedans  and  the  Scandinavians  con- 
tain traditions  of  the  great  flood.  The 
Chinese,  Hindoos    and   the    peoples   of  the 


—  372  — 

isles  of  the  Pacific  also  have  similar  tradi- 
tions. 

The  Chaldean  tradition  of  the  deluge  as 
related  by  Berosus  and  quoted  by  Josephus 
is  strikingh^  similar  to  the  Mosaic  account. 

The  Assyrian  records  and  Grecian  myth- 
ologies mention  the  great  cataclysm. 

Catlin  says  that  among  120  different 
tribes  in  North,  South  and  Central  America 
visited  by  him,  not  a  single  one  exists  that 
did  not  narrate  to  him  a  story  of  this  great 
calamity  to  the  infant  race.  The  Egyptians 
alone  (except  probably  in  their  hieroglyfics) 
seem  to  have  no  flood  legend  and  its  exist- 
ence is  extremely  vague  among  the  Persians 
and  the  pagan  portions  of  Africa.  Other- 
wise the  tradition  may  be  said  to  be  abso- 
lutely universal  among  all  the  peoples  of 
the  earth,  each  giving  a  local  coloring. 

Of  all  the  great  misfortunes  of  the  infancy 
of  our  race,  this  seems  to  have  been  the 
deepest  and  direst.  It  impressed  the  minds 
of  the  few  survivors  with  such  terror  that 
its  memory  has  survived  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  time. 

Many  of  the  nations  have  preserved  this 
tradition  by  means  of  pictures  and  hiero- 
glyphics. The  old  coins  of  classical  Greece, 
the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  (probably),  the 
sculptures  of  Hindustan,  the  picture-writ- 
ings of  old  Mexico  and  the  recently  discov- 


ered  Chaldean  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  have 
all  preserved  S3'mbolically  the  great  tra- 
dition. 

The  learned  commentators  of  the  Mosaic 
narrative  of  the  flood  put  forth  two  opinions 
principally  concerning  its  territorial  extent. 

Some  contend  that  it  was  absolutely  uni- 
versal over  the  whole  globe,  and  others,  and 
now  the  more  numerous,  claim  that  while  it 
was  universal  as  to  mankind,  it  was  only 
partial  as  to  the  earth. 

This  question  as  to  whether  the  deluge 
was  universal  or  partial  is  entirely  a  prob- 
lem of  physics  and  is  no  more  moral  in  its 
bearing,  than  the  questions  that  refer  to 
the  right  figure  or  correct  age  of  our  planet 
or  the  true  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
God  designed  to  punish  mankind  for  the 
sins  of  the  race.  His  object  was  to  destro}^ 
man,  and  his  purpose  could  certainly  be 
sufficiently  accomplished  whether  he  did  it 
b}^  a  partial  or  an  universal  flood. 

Against  the  absolute  universality  of  the 
deluge  as  regards  the  whole  globe,  the 
following  arguments  are  urged:  Genesis 
gives  very  precisel}'  the  form  and  dimen- 
sions of  Noah's  Ark.  It  v\'as  the  shape  of 
an  oblong  box,  three  stories  high,  with  a 
roof  of  the  ordinary  angular  form.  The 
x\rk  measured  three  hundred  cubits  in 
length,  fift}'  cubits   in  breadth,   and  thirty 


—  374  — 

cubits  in  height.  Could  all  the  animals  in 
the  world,  by  sevens  and  by  pairs,  with 
sufficient  food  to  serve  them  for  a  twelve- 
month, be  accommodated  within  this  given 
space? 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  was  an  experi- 
enced navigator,  and  a  thoroughly  compe- 
tent judge  in  such  matters  declared  that  in 
a  vessel  of  the  dimensions  of  Noah's  Ark 
there  would  be  ample  room  for  eighty-nine 
distinct  species  of  beasts,  or,  lest  any  should 
be  omitted,  for  a  hundred  several  kinds,  and 
for  the  birds,  and  for  meat  to  sustain  them 
all.  All  the  beasts  might  be  kept  in  one 
story  or  room  of  the  Ark,  in  their  several 
cabins  ;  their  meat  in  a  second ;  the  birds 
and  their  provision  in  a  third,  with  space  to 
spare  for  Noah  and  his  family,  and  all  their 
necessaries. 

In  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  time,  the  known 
animals  of  the  world  embraced  onl}^  eight}^- 
nine  species.  But  since  his  time  the  increase 
in  discovered  new  species  has  been  trul}^ 
prodigious.  A  single  centre  of  creation  as 
known  to  zoologists  to-da}^  would  embrace 
much  more  than  these  eighty-nine  species. 
In  Buffon's  time,  Raleigh's  estimate  of  the 
number  of  species  had  to  be  doubled  owing 
to  new  discoveries.  Because  of  late  discov- 
eries of  new  species  of  animals  in  America 
and  Australia  more  particularly,  and  also  in 


—  375  — 

otlier  parts  of  the  world,  the  number  of 
distinct  species  now  known  and  classified 
for  the  whole  globe  would  reach  700,000. 

To  get  sevens  and  pairs  of  all  these  into 
a  vessel  of  the  dimensions  of  Noah's  i\rk, 
together  with  food  sufficient  for  a  twelve- 
month, to  transport  them  to  the  Ark  over 
oceans  and  impassable  barriers  of  other 
kinds,  and  return  them  back  again,  after 
the  waters  subsided,  to  their  own  countries, 
would  require  miracles  upon  miracles,  it  is 
alleged.  It  seems  to  be  after  God's  methods 
never  to  multiply  miracles  unnecessarily, 
one  of  his  attributes  being  immutability. 
On  this  subject  Chalmers  well  says  :  "  It  is 
remarkable  that  God  is  sparing  of  miracles, 
and  seems  to  prefer  the  ordinary  processes 
of  nature,  if  equally  effectual  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  his  purposes.  He  might 
have  saved  Noah  and  his  family  by  miracles  ; 
but  He  is  not  prodigal  of  these,  and  so  He 
appointed  that  an  Ark  should  be  made  to 
bear  up  the  living  cargo  which  was  to  be 
kept  alive  on  the  surface  of  the  waters ;  and 
not  only  so,  but  He  respects  the  laws  of  the 
animal  physiology,  as  He  did  those  of  h}^- 
drostatics,  in  that  He  put  them  by  pairs 
into  the  Ark,  male  and  female,  to  secure 
their  transmission  to  after  ages,  and  food 
was  stored  up  to  sustain  them  during  their 
long  confinement.     In  short,  He  dispenses 


—  376  — 

with  miracles  when  these  are  not  requisite 
for  the  fulfillment  of  his  ends ;  and  He  never 
dispenses  with  the  ordinary  means  when 
these  are  fitted,  and  at  the  same  time  suf- 
ficient, for  the  occasion."  (Daily  Scripture 
Readings,  vol.  I.,  p.  lo.) 

Another  difficult}^  is  this.  It  is  well 
known  to  geologists  that  every  great  conti- 
nent has  its  own  peculiar  fauna ;  that  the 
original  centers  of  animal  creation  must 
have  been  many,  and  that  the  neighborhood 
of  these  centers  must  have  been  occupied 
by  their  pristine  animals  in  ages  long 
anterior  to  that  of  the  Noachian  Deluge, 
and  that  in  the  later  geological  ages  they 
were  preceded  in  them  by  animals  of  the 
same  general  type.  ''  The  great  continents," 
says  Cuvier,  "contain  species  peculiar  to 
each  ;  insomuch  that  whenever  large  coun- 
tries of  this  description  have  been  discovered, 
which  their  situation  had  kept  isolated  from 
the  rest  of  the  world,  the  class  of  quadru- 
peds which  they  contained  has  been  found 
extremely  different  from  any  that  had  ex- 
isted elsewhere.  Thus,  when  the  Spaniards 
first  penetrated  into  South  America,  they 
did  not  find  a  single  species  of  quadruped 
the  same  as  any  of  Europe,  Asia,  or  Africa. 
The  puma,  the  jaguar,  the  tapir,  the  cabiai, 
the  lama,  the  vicuna,  the  sloths,  the  arma- 
dilloes,  the  opossums,  and  the  whole  tribe 


—  377  — 

of  sapajous,  were  to  them  entirely  new  ani- 
mals, of  which  they  had  no  idea.  Similar 
circumstances  have  occurred  in  our  own 
time,  when  the  coasts  of  New  Holland  and 
the  adjacent  islands  were  first  explored. 
The  various  species  of  kangaroo,  phasco- 
lomys,  dasyurus,  and  perameles,  the  flying 
phalangers,  the  ornithorynchi,  and  echidnse, 
have  astonished  naturalists  by  the  strange- 
ness of  their  conformations,  which  presented 
proportions  contrary  to  all  former  rules,  and 
were  incapable  of  being  arranged  under  any 
of  the  systems  then  in  use."  And  Walworth 
(The  Gentle  Skeptic,  page  305)  says:  "But 
further — and  this  seems  to  make  the  case 
conclusive  against  an  universal  deluge — it 
is  evident  that  the  same  districts  or  provinces 
have  been  occupied  by  animals  of  the  same 
general  type  as  now  at  very  remote  periods 
of  the  world's  histor}^ — periods  which  are 
represented  b}'  the  extinct  species  of  the 
fossil  world.  The  sloths  and  armadilloes 
peculiar  to  South  America,  the  kangaroos 
of  Australia,  and  the  wingless  birds  of  New 
Zealand  tread  upon  the  ver}^  soil  beneath 
which  kindred  but  fossil  forms  of  life  lie 
sepulchred.  It  is  a  settled  fact  then,  that 
during  long  periods  of  time,  reaching  far 
beyond  all  human  history,  creatures  of  one 
species  have  succeeded  to  other  species  of 
the  same  or  a  similar  t3^pe  within  the  same 


—  378  — 

areas.  The  conclusion  against  an}^  universal 
deluge  is  evident,  the  argument  being  briefl}^ 
this:  Geology  in  concert  with  Zoology, 
shows  that  at  periods  long  anterior  to  any 
supposable  date  of  the  Deluge,  the  distribu- 
tion of  land  animals  upon  the  earth  w^as 
much  the  same  as  now.  But,  if  the  groups 
of  the  antediluvian  world  have  been  all 
broken  up  by  an  overwhelming  and  destroy- 
ing flood,  it  is  unaccountable  that  the  ancient 
districts  should  each  have  reclaimed  anew 
its  own  peculiar  fauna." 

Darwin  (Origin  of  the  Species,  page  295) 
remarks  as  follows  :  ^^  Mr.  Clift,  many  years 
ago,  showed  that  the  fossil  mammals  from 
the  Australian  caves  were  closely  allied  to 
the  living  marsupials  of  that  continent.  In 
South  America  a  similar  relationship  is 
manifest,  even  to  an  uneducated  eye,  in  the 
gigantic  pieces  of  armor,  like  those  of  the 
armadillo,  found  in  several  parts  of  La 
Plata ;  and  Professor  Owen  has  shown,  in 
the  most  striking  manner,  that  most  of  the 
fossil  mammals  buried  there  in  such  num- 
bers, are  related  to  South  American  types. 
The  relationship  is  even  more  clearly  seen 
in  the  wonderful  collection  of  fossil  bones 
made  by  MM.  Lund  and  Clausen  in  the 
caves  of  Brazil.  I  was  so  much  impressed 
with  these  facts,  that  I  strongly  insisted  in 
1839  and  1845  o^  ^^is  'law  of  the  succession 


—  379  — 

of  types' — on  '  this  wonderful  relationship 
between  the  dead  and  the  living.'  Professor 
Owen  has  subsequently  extended  the  same 
generalization  to  the  mammals  of  the  Old 
World.  We  see  the  same  law  in  this 
author's  restoration  of  the  extinct  and  gi- 
gantic birds  of  New  Zealand.  We  see  it 
also  in  the  birds  of  the  caves  of  Brazil.  Mr. 
Woodward  has  shown  that  the  same  law 
holds  good  with  sea  shells." 

Again,  without  a  special  miracle,  at  the 
lowest  calculation  three-fourths  of  the  vege- 
tation of  the  earth  would  have  perished  in  a 
universal  deluge  that  covered  over  the  dry 
land  for  the  space  of  a  3^ear.  The  very  best 
botanists  declare  that  the  various  vegetable 
regions  bear  witness  to  no  such  catastrophe. 
Either  no  effacing  fiood  has  passed  over 
these  regions  or  they  were  shielded  from  its 
destro^'ing  effects  at  the  cost  of  miracle  upon 
miracle,  for  the}^  are  still  distinct  and  un- 
broken as  of  old. 

Again,  in  mau}^  parts  of  the  world,  as  for 
instance  Auvergne  in  France,  and  on  the 
sides  of  Mount  ^tna,  there  are  cones  of 
extinct  or  long-slumbering  volcanoes,  which, 
although  more  than  three  times  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  great  flood,  exhibit  not  the 
slightest  marks  of  its  denuding  action.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  cones  of  volcanic 
craters    are    composed   of   loose  incoherent 


—  380  - 

scoriae  and  ashes,  which,  when  exposed  to 
the  action  of  waves  and  currents,  are  com- 
pletely swept  away  in  a  very  short  time. 
As  a  striking  example  of  the  action  of  cur- 
rents upon  volcanic  cones,  we  may  cite  what 
happened  to  Graham's  Island,  which  rose 
out  of  the  sea  in  July,  1831. 

In  the  succeeding  August,  this  volcanic 
island  had  acquired  a  circumference  of  three 
miles  and  reached  to  a  height  of  two  hun- 
dred feet.  In  less  than  four  months,  the 
sea  had  washed  it  completel}^  awa}^,  leaving 
only  a  shoal  to  mark  the  place  w^here  it 
once  existed. 

The  volcanic  islands  of  Nyve  and  Sabrina 
were  also  carried  away  by  oceanic  currents 
in  a  few  months  after  their  sudden  forma- 
tion. 

Lyell  has  estimated  that  no  great  flood 
could  have  possibly  touched  the  volcanic 
cones  on  the  flanks  of  ^tna  for  the  past 
twelve  thousand  ^^ears.  Neither  has  au}^ 
great  flood  passed  over  the  crater  cones  of 
Auvergne  for  even  a  greater  antiquit}^,  since 
these  cones  are  older  than  those  of  iEtna, 
as  old,  indeed,  as  the  times  of  the  Miocene. 
The  crater  cones  on  the  sides  of  both  these 
volcanoes  retain  in  entire  integrit}^  their 
original  shapes.  Now  certainly  if  the  ^tna 
and  Auvergne  districts  had  been  within  the 
area  of  the  Deluge,  it   is   claimed  that   the 


—  381  — 

loose  scoriae  of  their  conic  craters  would 
liave  been  completely  washed  away  during 
the  seven  and  one-half  months  that  the 
waters  had  submerged  the  great  mountain 
tops. 

The  majority  of  the  most  learned  com- 
mentators of  the  present  time  claim  that  the 
language  of  Moses  relating  to  the  great 
flood  should  be  taken  figuratively,  rather 
than  literally.  The  figure  or  trope  of  synec- 
doche is  certainl}^  frequently  used  in  the 
Bible.  Indeed  this  trope  is  one  of  the  beau- 
ties of  every  literature. 

The  Bible  says  .that  ''all  the  high  hills 
which  wxre  under  the  whole  heavens  were 
covered."  But  the  facts  of  astronomy,  geol- 
ogy, and  natural  history  seem  to  be  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  supposition  of  a  universal 
deluge,  unless  it  be  accompanied  with  the 
supposition  of  a  series  of  the  most  stupen- 
dous miracles.  Accordingly  it  is  the  opin- 
ion of  the  best  Biblical  critics  of  to-da}-, 
such  as  Nagelsbach,  Edward  Hitchcock, 
Ta^dor  Lewis,  J.  J.  S.  Perowne,  Dr.  Strong 
and  others  that  the  human  race  at  the  time 
of  the  deluge  occupied  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface,  lying  mostl}'  in  the 
basin  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  that  the 
deluge  was  confined  to  that  region  and  that 
the  Scriptural  expression  above  quoted  is  to 
be  taken  in  a  limited  signification. 


—  382  — 

God  intended  to  destroy  the  human  race 
in  punishment  of  sin.  God  had  certainly, 
no  motive  in  destroying  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms,  for  they  had  not  in- 
curred his  displeasure.  God  being  immu- 
table, works  only  the  miracles  absolutely 
necessary  to  carry  out  his  purpose.  He 
is  naturally  adverse  to  working  superflu- 
ous miracles.  God  could  have  fulfilled  his 
purpose  in  destroying  the  human  species 
in  its  early  infancy,  when  confined  within 
narrow  limits,  without  submerging  the  whole 
earth. 

The  practice  of  putting  the  whole  for  a 
part  has  been  quite  common  with  the  sacred 
writers.  Thus,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  the 
Bible  sa3'S  that  Jews  assembled  at  Jerusa- 
lem ^'^out  of  every  nation  tinder  Jieave^i  ;'^^  again 
*'  that  the  Gospel  was  preached  to  every 
creature  under  heaven ;^^  also  that  the  Queen 
of  Sheba  came  to  hear  Solomon  from  ''the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  earth;"  that  God  put 
the  dread  of  the  Israelites  upon  the  nations 
that  were  ''  under  the  whole  heavens ;^^  and 
''that  all  countries  came  into  Egypt  to 
Joseph  to  buy  corn." 

Any  one  of  these  passages  point  as  strong- 
ly to  universality  as  do  those  which  refer  to 
the  flood  which  say  that  the  "  waters  pre- 
vailed exceedingly  on  the  earth,"  so  that 
"  all    the    high    hills   that   were    under    the 


—  3S3  — 

whole    heavens  were  covered,'  or   that  'all 
flesh  died  that  moved  upon  the  earth." 

The  Scriptures  themselves  sometimes  de- 
fine the  limits  of  the  metonymic  passage. 
This  happens  for  instance  in  the  case  of  the 
assemblage  of  Jews  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 
The  Scripture  mentions  the  countries  from 
which  these  Jews  had  come.  They  came 
really  only  from  those  countries  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Judea,  as  far  as  Italy  on 
one  side  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  other, 
an  area  not  equal  to  one-fiftieth  of  the  whole 
earth. 

Many  of  the  passages  are  not  explained 
and  defined  by  Scripture.  For  the  proper 
interpretation  of  the  latter  passages  help 
must  be  sought  from  ancient  history  and 
geography. 

In  determining  the  extent  of  the  "all" 
in  the  passage  connected  with  the  Queen  of 
Sheba  and  "  all  the  world  "  taxed  by  Augus- 
tus, we  must  find  out  how  much  of  the  world 
had  been  discovered  in  Solomon's  time  and 
the  extent  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  that  of 
Caesar. 

So  that  passages  of  the  scriptures  involv- 
ing questions  of  physical  sciences  must  be 
in  a  great  measure  interpreted  according  to 
the  discoveries  of  these  sciences.  Very  dis- 
tinguished theologians  as  well  as  scientists 
have  held  that    the    Noachian    deluge    was 


—  384  — 

only  partial.  Poole  says  :  ^^  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  entire  globe  of  the  earth 
was  covered  with  water ;  where  was  the  need 
of  overwhelming  those  regions  in  which 
there  were  no  human  beings?" 

Stillingfleet  says  :  "  The  Flood  was  uni- 
versal as  to  mankind ;  but  from  thence  fol- 
lows no  necessity  at  all  of  asserting  the 
universality  of  it  as  to  the  globe  of  the 
earth,  unless  it  be  sufiicientl}^  proved  that  the 
whole  earth  was  peopled  before  the  Flood, 
which  I  despair  of  ever  seeing  proved." 

Dr.  Pye  Smith,  Professor  Hitchcock  and 
other  eminent  scientists,  as  already  stated, 
held  the  theory  of  a  partial  deluge. 

Even  though  the  Deluge  was  a  partial 
one,  to  Noah  and  his  family  in  the  Ark  it 
would  appear  universal,  for  they  would  see 
only  ocean  extending  from  horizon  to  hori- 
zon and  all  the  hills  and  mountains  they 
knew  would  disappear  beneath  the  waves. 

The  true  question,  however,  it  may  be 
remarked,  concerning  the  universality  or 
non-universality  of  the  Flood  is  not  whether 
or  no  Moses  is  to  be  believed  in  the  matter, 
but  whether  or  no  we  in  reality  understand 
Moses. 

Hugh  Miller,  ''  Little  Red  Sandstone,"  is 
a  strong  advocate  of  a  deluge  partial  as  to 
extent,  but  universal  as  to  mankind,  and 
gives  his  opinion  in  this  forcible  manner : 


—  385  — 

^'  The  question  is,  whether  we  are  to  regard 
the  passages  in  which  he  (Moses)  describes 
the  Flood  as  universal,  as  belonging  to  the 
very  numerous  metonymic  texts  of  Script- 
ure in  w^hich  a  part — sometimes  a  not  ver}^ 
large  part — is  described  as  the  whole,  or  to 
regard  them  as  strictly  and  severely  literal. 
Or,  in  other  words,  whether  we  are,  with 
learned  and  solid  divines  of  the  olden  time, 
such  as  Poole  and  Stillingfleet,  and  with 
many  ingenious  and  accomplished  divines 
of  the  passing  age,  such  as  the  late  Dr.  Pye 
Smith  and  the  Rev.  Professor  Hitchcock,  to 
regard  these  passages  as  merely  metonymic ; 
or,  with  Drs.  Hamilton  and  Kitto,  to  regard 
them  as  strictl}^  literal,  and  to  call  up  in 
support  of  the  literal  reading  an  amount  of 
supposititious  miracle,  compared  with  which 
all  the  recorded  miracles  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  sink  into  insignificance. 
The  controversy  does  not  lie  between  Moses 
and  the  naturalists,  but  between  the  7^eadmgs 
of  theologians  such  as  Mathew  Poole  and 
Stillingfleet  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  read- 
ings of  theologians  such  as  Drs.  Hamilton 
and  Kitto  on  the  other.  And  finding  all 
natural  science  arrayed  against  the  con- 
clusions of  the  one  class,  and  in  favor  of 
those  of  the  other,  and  believing  further, 
that  there  has  been  always  such  a  marked 
economy  shown  in  the  exercise  of  miracu- 

25 


do 


lous  powers,  that  there  has  never  been  more 
of  miracle  employed  in  any  one  of  the  dis- 
pensations than  was  needed,  I  must  hold 
that  the  theologians  who  believe  that  the 
Deluge  was  but  co-extensive  with  the  moral 
purpose  which  it  served  are  more  in  the 
right,  and  may  be  more  safely  followed, 
than  the  theologians  who  hold  that  it  ex- 
tended greatly  further  than  was  necessary. 
It  is  not  with  Moses  or  the  truth  of  revela- 
tion that  our  controversy  lies,  but  with  the 
opponents  of  Stillingfleet  and  of  Poole." 
(Testimony  of  the  Rocks,  page  308.) 

Miller  ventures  the  following  theory  of 
the  great  cataclysm:  ''There  is  a  remark- 
able portion  of  the  globe,  chiefly  in  the 
Asiatic  continent,  though  it  extends  into 
Europe,  and  which  is  nearly  equal  to  all 
Europe  in  area,  whose  rivers  (some  of  them, 
such  as  the  Volga,  the  Oural,  the  Sihon, 
the  Kour,  and  the  Amoo,  of  great  size)  do 
not  fall  into  the  ocean,  or  into  any  of  the 
many  seas  which  communicate  with  it. 
They  are,  on  the  contrary,  all  tur^ied  inzvards^ 
if  I  may  so  express  myself;  losing  them- 
selves, in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  tract,  in 
the  lakes  of  a  rainless  district,  in  which  they 
supply  but  the  waste  of  evaporation,  and 
falling,  in. the  western  parts,  into  seas  such 
as  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral.  In  this  region 
there  are  extensive  districts  still  under  the 


—  387  — 

level  of  the  ocean.  The  shore-line  of  the 
Caspian,  for  instance,  is  rather  more  than 
eighty-three  feet  beneath  that  of  the  Black 
Sea ;  and  some  of  the  great  flat  steppes 
which  spread  out  around  it,  such  as  what  is 
known  as  the  Steppe  of  Astracan,  have  a 
mean  level  of  about  thirty  feet  beneath  that 
of  the  Baltic. 

Were  there  a  trench-like  strip  of  country 
that  communicated  between  the  Caspian  and 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  to  be  depressed  beneath 
the  level  of  the  latter  sea,  it  would  so  open 
the  foiuitains  of  the  great  deep  as  to  lay  under 
water  an  extensive  and  populous  region, 
containing  the  cities  of  Astracan,  and  As- 
trabad,  and  many  other  towns  and  villages. 
Now  is  it  unworthy  of  remark,  surely,  that 
one  of  the  depressed  steppes  of  this  peculiar 
region  is  known  as  the  ''Low  Steppe  of  the 
Caucasus,"  and  forms  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  the  great  recognized  centre  of  the 
human  family.  The  Mount  Ararat  on 
which,  according  to  many  of  our  commenta- 
tors, the  ark  rested,  rises  immediatel}^  on 
the  western  edge  of  this  great  hollow ;  the 
Mount  Ararat  selected  as  the  scene  of  that 
event  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  certainly  not 
without  some  show  of  reason,  lies  far  within 
it.  .  .  .  With  the  known  facts,  then,  regard- 
ing this  depressed  Asiatic  region  before  us, 
let  us   see   whether   we  cannot  originate  a 


o 


88  — 


theory  of  the  Deluge  free  from  at  least  the 
palpable  monstrosities  of  the  older  ones. 
Let  us  suppose  that  the  human  family,  still 
amounting  to  several  millions,  though  great- 
ly reduced  by  exterminating  wars  and  ex- 
hausting vices,  were  congregated  in  that 
tract  of  country  which,  extending  eastwards 
from  the  modern  Ararat  to  far  beyond  the 
Sea  of  Aral,  includes  the  original  Caucasian 
centre  of  the  race  ;  let  us  suppose  that,  the 
hour  of  judgment  having  at  length  arrived, 
the  land  began  gradually  to  sink,  as  the 
tract  in  the  run  of  Cutch  sank  in  the  year 
1 8 19,  or  as  the  tract  in  the  southern  part  of 
North  America  known  as  the  "sunk  coun- 
try," sank  in  the  year  182 1  :  further,  let  us 
suppose  that  the  depression  took  place 
slowly  and  equably  for  forty  da^^s  together, 
at  the  rate  of  about  four  hundred  feet  per 
day, — a  rate  not  twice  greater  than  at  which 
the  tide  rises  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and 
which  would  have  rendered  itself  apparent 
as  but  a  persistent  inward  flowing  of  the 
sea :  let  us  yet  farther  suppose  that,  from 
mayhap  some  volcanic  outburst  coincident 
with  the  depression,  and  an  effect  of  the 
same  deep-seated  cause,  the  atmosphere  was 
so  affected,  that  heavy  drenching  rains  con- 
tinued to  descend  during  the  whole  time, 
and  that,  though  they  could  contribute  but 
little  to  the  actual  volume  of  the  flood, — at 


—  389  — 

most  only  some  five  or  six  inches  per  day, — 
they  at  least  seemed  to  constitute  one  of  its 
main  causes,  and  added  greatly  to  its  ter- 
rors, by  swelling  the  rivers,  and  rushing 
downwards  in  torrents  from  the  hills :  the 
depression,  which,  by  extending  to  the 
Euxine  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  one 
hand,  and  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland  on  the 
other,  w^ould  open  up  by  three  separate 
channels  the  fountains  of  the  great  deep, 
and  which  included,  let  us  suppose,  an  area 
of  about  two  thousand  miles  each  way, 
would,  at  the  end  of  the  fortieth  day,  be 
sunk  in  its  centre  to  the  depth  of  sixteen 
thousand  feet, — a  depth  sufi&ciently  pro- 
found to  bury  the  loftiest  mountains  of  the 
district ;  and  yet,  having  a  gradient  of  de- 
clination of  but  sixteen  feet  per  mile,  the 
contour  of  its  hills  and  plains  would  remain 
apparently  what  they  had  been  before, — the 
doomed  inhabitants  would  see  but  the  water 
rising  along  the  mountain  sides,  and  one 
refuge  after  another  swept  away,  till  the 
last  witness  of  the  scene  would  have  per- 
ished, and  the  last  hill-top  would  have  dis- 
appeared. And  when,  after  a  hundred  and 
fifty  days  had  come  and  gone,  the  depressed 
hollow  would  have  begun  slowly  to  rise,  and 
when,  after  the  fifth  month  had  passed,  the 
ark  would  have  grounded  on  the  summit  of 
Alount  Ararat,  all  that  could  have  been  seen 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

RENEWALS  ONLY—TEL.  NO.  642-3405 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

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